DTIC AD0277506: FUNDAMENTALS OF SAFETY FOR EXPERIMENTAL PROCESSING, HANDLING, AND STORAGE OF HIGH-ENERGY MATERIALS

UNCLASSIFIED

Refmchiced
kf. the

ARMED SERVICES TECHNICAL INFORMATION AGENCY
ARLINGTON HALL STATION
ARLINGTON 12, VIRGINIA

UNCLASSIFIED

NOTICE: When government or other drawings, speci¬
fications or other data are used for any purpose
other than in connection with a definitely related
government procurement operation, the U. S.
Government thereby incurs no responsibility, nor any
obligation whatsoever; and the fact that the Govern¬
ment may have formulated, furnished, or in any way
supplied the said drawings, specifications, or other
data is not to be regarded by implication or other¬
wise as in any manner licensing the holder or any
other person or corporation, or conveying any rights
or permission to manufacture, use or sell any
patented invention that may in any way be related
thereto.

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HOTS TP 21(6
COPY 88

FUNDAMENTALS OF SAFETY FOR EXPERIMENTAL
PROCESSING, HANDLING, AND STORAGE OF

HIGH-ENERGY MATERIALS

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by

K. S. Skaar

Propulsion Development Deportment

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ABSTRACT. This document presents safety fundamentals
relevant to operations with almost all materials capable of
sudden release of chemical energy and chemical products
that may be harmful or dangerous. These fundamentals are
intended primarily as training topics and as guides for
evaluating safety programs in the fields of explosives, pro¬
pellants, pyrotechnics, and the like. While the fundamentals
were developed as training aids in a research and develop¬
ment organization, it is believed that they are applicable to
almost any operation with dangerous materials.

Released to AdTIA for further dissemination with
out limitations beyond those imposed by security
regulations.

U.S. NAVAL ORDNANCE TEST STATION

China Lake, California
June 1962

U. 8. NAVAL ORDNANCB TEST STATION

AN ACTIVITY OF THE BUREAU OF NAVAL WEAPONS
C. Blenman, Jr., Capt., USN Wm. B. McLean, PhD.

Commander Technical Director

FOREWORD

*

These fundamentals of safety for working with high-energy materials
were prepared over a year ago and have been used and discussed in safety
training courses of the Propulsion Development Department, U. S. Naval
Ordnance Test Station. The fundamentals have been accepted by the
research and development personnel of this department as filling a need
by providing guidelines for new and hazardous work. It is hoped that by
making them available to others who are doing hazardous work, the
fundamentals might be found useful in their safety training programs
and therefore increase the awareness of the individual to the necessity
and importance for an understanding of these fundamentals.

Released by

JAMES T. BARTLING, Head,
Propulsion Development Dept.
January 1962

Under the authority of
WM. B. MCLEAN
Technical Director

NOTS Technical Publication 2866

Published by.Publishing Division

Technical Information Department

Supersedes .IDP 1154, Revision 1, and TS 61-44

Collation .Cover, 6 leaves, abstract cards

First printing. 460 numbered copies

Security classification .UNCLASSIFIED

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ORDBG-BLI (1)

Technical Library (1)

1 Army Cml C Research and Development Command, Army Biological
Warfare Laboratories, Fort Detrick (Chief, MD Division)

4 Army Rocket & Guided Missile Agency, Redstone Arsenal (Technical
Library, ORDXR-OTL)

2 Frankford Arsenal

Pitman-Dunn Laboratory (1)

Library (1)

1 Holston Ordnance Works (Dr. Robert Robbins)

1 Iowa Ordnance Plant

1 Ordnance Ammunition Command, Joliet (ORDLY-R-T)

1 Pantex Ordnance Plant

5 Picatinny Arsenal

C. J. Bain (1)

Elmer Mohrenweiser (1)

Library (3)

2 Radford Arsenal (Library)

3 White Sands Proving Ground (Technical Library)

2 Headquarters, U. S. Air Force

AFDRD-AN (1) .

AFDRT-AF, M. A. Eaffy(l)

1 Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
(ASAPRD-Dist)

1 Air Force Special Weapons Center, Kirtland Air Force Base
(SWOIC 6336)

2 Air Proving Ground Center, Eglin Air Force Base

PGAPI(l)

1 Tactical Air Command, Langley Air Force Base (TPL-RQD-M)

1 Armed Services Explosives Safety Board (LtCol. Gerald Couch/

R. G. Perkins)

10 Armed Services Technical Information Agency (TIPCR)

1 Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh (Reports Librarian)

4 British Joint Services Mission, Ministry of Supply Staff (Reports
Officer), via BuWeps (DSC)

1 Aerojet-General Corporation, Azusa, Calif. (Librarian), via
BuWepsRep

1 Aerojet-General Corporation, Sacramento (Librarian), via
BuWepsRRep

2 Allegany Ballistics Laboratory, Cumberland, Md. (Librarian)

1 American Potash & Chemical Corporation, West Hanover, Mass.

1 Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge

1 Atlantic Research Corporation, Alexandria, Va. (Librarian)

1 Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio (Defense Metals Infor¬
mation Center)

1 Boeing Airplane Company, Seattle (Branch 7 Library)

1 California Institute of Technology, Pasadena (Dr. P. A. Longwell)

1 Convair, San Diego (Engineering Library)

1 E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc., Wilmington (Assistant
Director of Research)

1 Hercules Powder Company, Explosives Department, Wilmington
(A. M. Ball)

1 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, CIT, Pasadena (Library)

3 Liquid Propellant Information Agency, Applied Physics Laboratory,
JHU, Silver Spring

2 Lockheed Aircraft Corporation, Missiles and Space Division, Palo
Alto, Calif.

Polaris Propulsion Department, 81-27, Polaris System
Integration (1)

Technical Library, Reports (1)

2 Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (GMX-2)

1 Midwest Research Institute, Kansas City (Librarian)

1 Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Company, St. Paul (George E.
Chutka)

1 New York University, College of Engineering (Professor of Chemical
Engineering)

1 Nortronics, Anaheim, Calif. (Rockets & ECM, Department 2221)

1 Olin Mathieson Chemical Corporation, Marion, Ill. (Mail Control
Room, S P O, T. F. McDonnell)

1 Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. (E. T. McBee, Department of
Chemistry)

1 Rocketdyne, Canoga Park, Calif. (Librarian)

2 Rocketdyne, McGregor, Tex. (Rocket Fuels Division)

2 Rohm & Haas Company, Redstone Arsenal Research Division
(Librarian)

1 Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque (Classified Documents Division)

2 Solid Propellant Information Agency, Applied Physics Laboratory,
JHU, Silver Spring (K. F. Ockert)

1 Southwest Research Institute, Department of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, San Antonio (Dr. H. C. McKee)

1 Stanford Research Institute, Poulter Laboratories, Menlo Park,

Calif.

1 The Martin Company, Baltimore (I. E. Tuhy)

1 The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif.

1 Thiokol Chemical Corporation, Redstone Division, Redstone Arsenal
(Technical Library)

6 University of California Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Technical
Information Division, Livermore (C. G. Craig)

J. Bell/M. Martin (2)

Dr. John S. Foster (2)

M. C. Larsen/W. L. Nevil (1)

Kenneth Street (1) j

2 University of Denver, Denver Research Institute

A. Krill (1)

D. K. Parks (1)

1 University of Utah, Salt Lake City (Dr. M. A. Cook)

NOTS TP 2866

PREFACE

Research and development organizations, such as the U. S. Naval
Ordnance Test Station, working on new propellants, high explosives,
pyrotechnics, and other high-energy materials, have attempted to
abide by safety rules and safety guidelines developed primarily for
production organizations. While this has worked reasonably well in
the past, there is concern about the adequacy of current safety guides
for the present and future. Rules developed for production tend to fit
well known materials and well established practices, but they cannot
be expected to deal adequately with all problems in new areas of work.

We have entered into a period of rapid changes where the materials
being worked on are considerably different and some are more hazard¬
ous than the materials worked on in the past. Therefore, it is believed
that some changes are needed in the approach to safety particularly in
research and development organizations.

Research and development organizations need guidelines that are
flexible and that allow for safety decisions to be made as close as pos¬
sible to the point of greatest information on new high-energy materials.
In the final analysis, it is necessary to depend on the persons working
with new materials to analyze their safety problem and to develop safe
procedures for which there may be no precedents.

It is proposed that more emphasis be given to the training of in¬
dividuals, especially chemists, engineers, and other technical and
supervisory personnel, working with or supervising work on high-
energy materials. It has been observed that conventional training in
the rules of safety leaves some people with the attitude that rules are
arbitrary and that one is compelled to follow them whether or not they
make sense. Therefore, an outlook is developed that causes some
people to oppose rather than to support well established rules and prac¬
tices. The supplementary training that may help form more favorable
attitudes is background training enabling people to understand that most
safety policies and rules have a reasonable and sound basis. It is be¬
lieved that individuals who have training in fundamentals will be more
willing to accept the rules that are relevant because application of
fundamentals would lead to about the same answers. It is also believed
that individuals trained in fundamentals are better prepared to formu¬
late sound guidelines for performing experimental work on new
hazardous materials. In new areas of work, it is necessary to formu¬
late some safety procedures where there is no precedent; otherwise
progress is not possible on a reasonable basis that is acceptable to
research and development personnel.

This document is intended primarily as a training aid for giving
the kind of background necessary for the conditions mentioned above.

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NOTS TP 2866

The type of training suggested is a program where each fundamental
is discussed by small groups. It is suggested that each person be *

encouraged to challenge any statement and to present his own inter- J ■

pretation in groups large enough for varying viewpoints but small enough >

so that each person can effectively participate.

K. S. 3.

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NOTS TP 2866

PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY FOR EXPLOSIVES

1. Take time to think, plan, and review.

2. Learn and use the experience of others.

3. Assume the worst with the unknown.

4. Minimize hazards and exposure to hazards.

5. Be concerned about the safety of others.

SAFETY REMINDERS

Of mistakes and cures, learn the past.
Think and plan, but not too fast.
Something new, take double care.

With our lives, we do no dare.

Instead, we listen, heed the wise
Minimize, minimize, minimize.

NOTS TP 2866

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

These fundamentals of safety have been reviewed by so many
people at the Naval Ordnance Test Station and elsewhere that it is
impossible to list them individually. The guidelines have been re¬
viewed by members of the Station's Safety Division staff, by the Pro¬
pulsion Development Department Safety Group, by members of the
Process Development Division, the Explosives and Pyrotechnics
Division, the Propellants Division, and the Test and Evaluation Divi¬
sion. The fundamentals have been further reviewed by Dr. P. A.
Longwell, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, and formerly
head of the Explosives Department, NOTS. Mr. Paul A. Donaldson,
Safety Engineer, and Cecil Hunter, Safety Specialist, Propulsion
Development Department, deserve special mention for their close
cooperation, careful review, and interest shown in this document.

NOTS TP 2866

INTRODUCTION

The objectives of a good safety program for work with high-energy
materials are

1. To minimize hazards to personnel and prevent loss of lives

2. To prevent accidental fires or detonations

/

3. To minimize possible loss of equipment and buildings

4. To reduce accidents typically occurring in almost any labora¬
tory or operation

The following statements are general guidelines that are relevant
to work on almost every material that is capable of sudden release
of chemical energy and chemical products in sufficient amounts to be
harmful or dangerous.

These guidelines are an organized set of fundamentals of safety
on which there is general agreement, among experienced technical,
safety, and supervisory people, that the fundamentals are an appli¬
cable and necessary part of an explosive safety program. These funda¬
mentals avoid stating exactly how an organization is to perform its
responsibilities, but they do attempt to point out what the responsibilities
are and to offer general suggestions of the important factors to be
considered in hazardous work with high-energy materials. The funda¬
mentals by themselves are just a starting point; they must be put to
work and given concrete meaning through thought, discussion, and
training sessions. Safety in any situation calls for knowledge of the
characteristics of the materials being worked on, knowledge of the
behavior and characteristics of equipment and its possible interactions
with high-energy materials, knowledge of the characteristics of people
as they are, and knowledge of how to design and maintain facilities
and equipment for safety.

These safety fundamentals are intended as guides to aid in review¬
ing instructions and rules for specific applications and as discussion
topics for training personnel connected with work on high-energy
materials. They were prepared for use by research and development
groups working on high-energy materials in amounts ranging from a
few grams to full-scale pilot-plant quantities.

The phrase "high-energy materials" and the word "explosives"
are used here to cover the broad field of propellants, high explosives,
pyrotechnics, and primary and initiating explosives.

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NOTS TP 2866

GENERAL FUNDAMENTALS

1. Accidents with explosives are caused by energy concentrations,
such as sparks, friction, impact, flame, hot objects, chemical re¬
action, radiation, excessive pressure, and electrostatic discharge.
Energy concentrations anywhere near initiating levels must be kept
away from explosives except when it is desired to ignite or detonate
the explosive.

2. The initiation of explosives is subject to probability consider¬
ations. With a low level of stimulus, the probability of initiation can
be small; with a high energy concentration, the probability of initiation
will be much larger but still not certain. The probabilities at the
extremes cannot be determined with accuracy from a small number of
tests. Therefore, in order to keep the probability of initiation low, it
is good practice to treat explosives as gently and as carefully as pos¬
sible.

3. Probability is a consideration in virtually all accidents. The
probability of a serious accident may never be reduced to zero, but the
probability of an adverse incident can be kept very low by working to
find ways to eliminate causes of accidents and by providing a safe
environment.

4. A series of safety devices or steps may be employed to greatly
increase the safety of an operation or of a weapon system that uses
explosives. Unless there is an adequate review process for ensuring
that all parts of the safing system are maintained and used, there is a
tendency for the safety of the system to deteriorate.

5. When specific knowledge is lacking on the characteristics of an
explosive, the worst characteristics that might affect safety must be
assumed.

6. Explosives that are new to an individual or group working with
them must be regarded as extremely dangerous until their character¬
istics are well known and the individual or group has become skilled in
practices that minimize processing and handling hazards.

7. Human errors and human failings must be allowed for. Even
the best man may occasionally forget, fail to understand, act without
thinking, go ahead without adequate knowledge, or become upset.

8. Relaxation of safety regulations affecting personnel should be
based on proof that present requirements are more stringent than
necessary. Conversely, if it is suspected that existing safety measures
may not be adequate, steps must be taken immediately to provide

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NOTS TP 2866

added precautions even though the evidence is not conclusive. Pro¬
cedures for changing regulations must be known by everyone concerned.

PERSONNEL TRAINING AND PROTECTION

9. Important elements of safety are the formation of good habits;
a calm, mature environment; and training based on previous experience
in the whole explosive field.

10. Supervisors of explosive operations must have adequate train¬
ing and knowledge to maintain safety of operations.

11. A man performing an explosive operation without direct
supervision must have sufficient training and knowledge to maintain
safety of his operation.

12. Persons working with explosives must have favorable attitudes
toward safety and must be emotionally stable.

13. For persons working with explosives or observing explosive
operations, provide protection for their eyes, protection against fire
or intense radiant heat, means for automatically discharging static
electricity from their bodies, and means for keeping their bodies and
personal clothing free from contamination.

14. Means must be provided for safeguarding personnel from
toxic materials, fumes, or other harmful effects. With very toxic
materials, there may be need for protecting people considerable dis¬
tances away who may or may not be involved in the work.

15. Provide showers, eye washers, and other first-aid devices,
which are necessary immediate aids in preventing further injury, in
locations that are quickly and easily accessible.

16. Personnel working with toxic materials must be given periodic
medical examinations.

17. Adequate tools and help for lifting, for performing operations,
and for emergency assistance should be available. *

18. Visitors unfamiliar with explosive operations or the explosive
facility must be escorted by a responsible person who knows what is
going on and what the safety precautions are.

NOTS TP 2866

PLANNING AND PREPARATION

19. Data on properties and characteristics of new explosives to
be processed in larger than minimum laboratory amounts should be
reviewed by a qualified group before introduction of the explosive
into a process. These data and recommendations of the committee
must be available to the processing group before beginning work.

20. Compatibility of different explosives should be established
before combining them as part of a design, for storage, or for scrap
disposal.

21. Having more than one explosive in a processing building or
bay at the same time must be carefully considered for hazards and
done only for good reason.

22. General operating guidelines should be written for all new
operations to ensure that careful thought and careful review have been
exercised before the start of potentially hazardous work. The general
operating guidelines may permit flexibility where justified, but they
must be reviewed by one or more qualified, experienced persons.

23. Keep up-to-date charts and instructions in the operating build¬
ing. They can serve as ready references, as reminders of procedures
to be followed,and explanations of the essential features of equipment.

24. Time must be allowed—even at the expense of deadlines and
schedules — for adequate thought, planning, and preparation of hazard¬
ous operations.

25. Within limits of reasonability and practicability, the safest
method for processing or working on high-energy materials should be
used.

26. Any explosive operation performed with personnel exposed
should be of such a nature that there is no detonation hazard, and with
ample opportunity to escape unhurt in case of fire. Usually, operations
in closed vessels will be performed remotely.

RESPONSIBILITIES AND CONTROLS

27. Supervisors are responsible for the safety of operations and
the men they supervise. The safety-engineering staff is responsible
for advising the line organization on safety and is responsible for
helping the organization maintain high standards of safety.

NOTS TP 2866

28. Whoever recognizes a hazardous situation is responsible for
taking steps to have the condition corrected.

29. Scrap or waste disposal is a hazardous operation. The scientist
or engineer who originates a new formulation is obligated to assist

in specifying disposal conditions and procedures.

30. Most careful consideration must be given to setting processing
limits such as maximum temperatures, pressures, rates of machining,
rates of mixing, and rates of extrusion.

31. Containers of explosives and explosive ingredients should be
clearly labeled at all times as to their content and nature of hazard.
When possible, label the explosive directly.

32. Explosive-processing or storage areas should be posted with
warnings to advise of precautions to be taken and how to obtain guidance.

MINIMIZING HAZARDS

33. The number of individuals exposed to hazards should be kept
to a minimum consistent with operational requirements and safety.

34. Always work with, and in the presence of, the least amount
of explosive needed for the operation.

35. Get as much useful data on as small a scale as possible. It is
much easier to protect individuals and minimize losses with laboratory-
scale work than with full-scale work.

36. Check new equipment and new procedures with inert materials
whenever possible.

37. Cleanliness and orderliness help to prevent initiation or the
spread of a fire or detonation.

38. Operations should be conducted at all times with a view toward
minimizing the effects of an accidental fire, detonation, or any other
hazard.

39. Only the immediately needed portable tools and equipment
should be retained in a processing room.

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NOTS TP 2866

TRANSPORTATION, SHIPPING, AND STORAGE

40. With few exceptions, containers should be used for transporting \

and storing explosives. These containers should provide delay of

ignition from fire, should attenuate shock energy, and should protect
against contamination and physical damage.

41. When explosives are transported, precautions must be taken
to protect persons and property on or near the roadway. Precautions
must be taken to reduce the probability of an accident and to minimize
the effects of a possible transportation accident.

42. Shipping explosives to individuals or activities should be per¬
formed by a group or individuals familiar with pertinent regulations
governing packaging, shipping, and handling in transit.

43. Before sending explosives to other activities, it should be
established that that activity is qualified to receive and handle the
explosive. The receiver should be fully informed in writing of the
characteristics of any new or nonstandard explosive.

. 44. New or experimental explosives whose stability and compati¬
bility with other materials have not been thoroughly established should
be stored in small quantities under conditions where possible ignition
will cause limited damage. These explosives must never be stored
with quantities of other explosives whose ignition could create a hazard.

45. A periodic review of high-energy materials in storage must
be made to ensure against storage of these materials for longer than
their safe life. Records of all materials in storage must be kept
where they are not likely to be destroyed.

FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT

46. The design of new facilities, new equipment, and tools should
receive the same careful safety review as do new explosives. Designers
should remove the human factor from hazards by making protection

as permanent and as automatic as possible.

47. All automatic safety devices, such as fire-fighting systems,
interlocks, and warning signals should be checked at predetermined
intervals or more frequently.

48. Schedules of preventive maintenance should be set up for all
equipment used in explosive operations where failure to institute and

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NOTS TP 2866

conduct such a program can lead to processing hazards.

49. Equipment taken to a shop for repair or adjustment must be
freed from explosives by a suitable decontamination process. Shop
personnel should be warned of added precautions to be taken during
further disassembly.

50. All explosives must be removed from a processing room when
it is turned over to a maintenance group for repair or adjustment of
equipment. Equipment that may be contaminated with explosives
must be cleaned so that repairs or adjustments can be made safely.
Maintenance personnel should be given complete information on con¬
ditions that might affect their safety.

51. Although every reasonable effort has been made to decontaminate
a facility or equipment, anyone performing maintenance or repair
work on the equipment should proceed with caution.

REPORTING ACCIDENTS

52. The discernible facts associated with any accidental deflagration
or explosion must be reported completely and accurately so that others
doing similar work may be warned and so that the best corrective
action may be taken to prevent similar accidents.

53. Minor incidents, which in themselves do little or no harm,
frequently give warnings of unsuspected hazards. These incidents
should be widely reported and their significance given thorough con¬
sideration.

54. Complete records of operating conditions should be kept.

When accidents occur, the records are an important aid in determining
the cause and in preventing future adverse incidents. Critical temper¬
atures, pressures, speeds, power consumed by motors, etc., should
be recorded continuously when possible.

NOTS TP 2866

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION

14 Chief, Bureau of Naval Weapons

DLI-31 (2)

R-14 (1)

R-362 (1)

RM-281 (1)

RM-35 (1)

RMMP (1)

RMMP-2 (1)

1 Special Projects Office (Code 2710)

2 Chief of Naval Research

RMMP-4 (1)
RRMA-221 (1)
RRRE-5 (1)
RRRE-6 (1)
RRRE-21 (1)
RUME-11 (1)

Code 104 (1)

1 Fleet Anti-Air Warfare Training Center, San Diego (Guided Missile
Section)

1 Naval Air Development Center, Johnsville (Library)

2 Naval Air Mobile Training, Naval Air Station, Miramar

Naval Air Mobile Training Detachment, 4003 Ordnance (1)

Naval Air Mobile Training Detachment, 4030 Missile (1)

2 Naval Ammunition Depot, Crane

Code 42, Ammunition Loading Production Engineering Center (1)
4 Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak

Guided Missile Warhead R & D Planning Committee, c/o Project
Manager for Warheads (1)

Dr. J. E. Ablard (1)

Dr. Sigmund Jacobs (1)

WC (1)

1 Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey

3 Naval Propellant Plant, Indian Head

Code P (1)

Code R (2)

1 Naval Research Laboratory

2 Naval Weapons Evaluation Facility, Kirtland Air Force Base

Code 401(1)

Vulnerability Department, W. Gordon (1)

1 Naval Weapons Laboratory, Dahlgren (Technical Library)

2 Naval Weapons Station, Yorktown

Research & Development Group (1)

Mr. Manley (1)

1 Office of Naval Research Branch Office, Pasadena

1 Bureau of Naval Weapons Representative, Azusa

1 Bureau of Naval Weapons Resident Representative, Sacramento

3 Chief of Ordnance

ORDTB (1)

ORDTU (1)

W. W. Cowgill, Special Consultant (1)
3 Aberdeen Proving Ground

Ballistic Research Laboratories (1)

8

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