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Cox, Dorothy A., Ed.; Stapp, William B., Ed.
International Perspectives on Environmental
Education; Issues and Actions. Proceedings of the 1st
International and 13th Annual Conference of the North
American Association for Environmental Education
(Banff, Alberta, Canada, October 5-9, 1984).
North American Association for Environmental
Education, Troy, OH.; Wisconsin Univ., Madison. Inst,
for Environmental Studies.
Feb 86
352F.
North American Association for Environmental
Education, P.O. Box 400, Troy, OH 45373 ($9.00,
member, $11.00, nonmember).
Collected 'forks - Conference Proceedings (021)
MF01/PC15 Plus Postage.
Conferences; *Con8Arvation (Environment);
Conservation Education; Developing Nations;
Elementary Secondary Education; *Bnvironmental
Education; Foreign Countries; *Government Role;
Higher Education; *Instructional Development;
International Educational Exchange; *Natural
Resources; *Nonformal Education; Outdoor Education
*Environmental Issues; Informal Education
The proceedings of the first International Conference
of the North American Association for Environmental Education (NAEE),
which was also the 13th annual conference of the National Association
of Environmental Education as the NAEE was formerly known, provides
as complete a record as possible of the conference activities. Papers
and reports are listed alphabetically by presenters in 10 general
sections. Keynote speeche? are given fuj.1 length while abstracts of
1500 words or less are given for the remaining papers. Sections
included are: (1) major addresses (representing perspectives from
Canada, the United Nations, the United States, and Australia); (2)
Banfi Declaration (affirming a commitment to a new governmental
ethic); (3) sections workshop report (focusing on ecological
sustainable development); (4) international issues and actions
(reviewing programs and conditions in Swaziland, Brazil, Barbados,
Norway, India, Egypt, New Zealand, and Thailand); (5) governmental
roles (includi-^g a symposium on Canada/U.S. relations and panels on
information systems and a national center for environmental
education); (6) issues (covering such topics as acid rain, nuclear
arms, toxic substances, and population); (7) nonformal education
(considering parks, centers, churches, and environmental history);
(8) tertiary education (examining training programs ) ; (S) curriculum
(describing outdoor progress, community issues, technology, energy,
and computers); and (10) research (reporting on attitudes, behaviors,
cognitive models, evaluation, and curriculum materials). (ML)
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tOUCATKWAL RESOURCES INFOftMATION
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North American Association for
Environmental Education
position or poJwy
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ERIC
International Perspectives on Environmental
Education: Issues and Actions
1984
Conference
■ PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"
INTERNAm PERSPECTIVES ON ENVmONMENTAL
EDI .aTION: ISSUES AND ACTIONS
1984
Confarence
Selected Papers from the Thirteenth Annual
Conference of the North American
Association for Environmental Education
Edited by
Dorothy A Cox
William B. Sta.-p
Published by
The North American Association for Environmental Education
P. O. Box 400
Troy, Ohio 45373
In Cooperation with
The Institute for Environmental Studies
University of Wisconsin-Madison
February, 1986
^v^^'"^ ''''
PREFACE
This Is the proceedings of the first International Conference of
the North American Association for Environmental Education (NAEt),
This also docuiTients the 13th annual conference of NAEE (formerly known
as the National Association of Envlron.iiental Education). The
conference was held from October 5 to 9, 1984, at the Chateau Lake
Louise Hotel In Banff National Park near the townslte of Lake Louise
1r. Alberta. Canada. The conference featured five keynote addresses,
over 12 Invited speakers, 13 workshops, 10 panels and symposia, and
over 75 contributed paper's. While more than 10 field trips were
available before, after, and during the conference, one entire
afternoon was devoted to interpretive field sessloiis In order that
everyone would be able to enjoy and learn from the spectacular
Canadian Rockies environment. The conference began with over 100
participants meeting In a two-day workshop dt.veloped by the combined
planning of the three NAEE Sections. (See their report In Part III.)
One of the significant conference outcomes was the adoption by the
participants of the Banff Declaration. (See Part 11.) Over 350
Individuals attended the conference from 2B countries representing all
regions of the world.
Participating In the Conference with NAEE was The American Society
for Environmental History, a society which provides a coordinating
network of environmental historians and professionals In environmental
science, humanities, and social sciences. The ASEH presented four
panel presentations as a part of the conference.
The purpose of this proceedings Is to provide as complete a record
as possible of the annual conference activities.
This proceedings contains ten sections. Papers and reports are
grouped by general topic with presentors listed alphabetically within
each section. Major addresses are full length; all others have been
edited to approximately 1500 words or less. If a long abstract was
not submitted by an author, the short abstract (from the conference
program) Is Included to complete the record of the conference. In a
few cases no text tr auctract has been available, but the presentation
Is listed by title to Indicate that a presentation was madi.
The editors most gratefully thank Gloria Stapp, Glovanna DIChIro,
Lorl Mann, Martha Monroe, ana Oebra Yandala for their Invaluable
contribution In reading and editing papers; Arthur Sacks for arranging
for the typing to be done at the Institute tor Environmental Studies,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin; and Joan Heidelberg for
handling a myriad of details that made our Job so much easier.
Dorothy A. Cox
William B. Stapp
Co-editors
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Major Addresses
A. Bradley, Fred D. "Welcoming Address" (Canada) . 13
B. Fraser, John. "Stalus of Environmental Education
Issues In Canada" (Canada) 16
C. Brown, Noel. "The International Environment"
(U.N.) 21
0. Baez, Albert V. "The World Conservation Strategy
and Environmental Education" (USA) 22
E. Linke, Russell 0. "The Challenge of
Environmental Education In Today's World"
(Australia) 32
F. Sacks, Arthur. "NAEE President's Address" USA) . 38
II The Banff Declaration 41
III Coordinated NAEE Sections Workshop Report
Serberet, Jerry and Arthurs Sacks.
"Environmental Education for
the Biosphere: Workshops on Ecologically
Sustainable Development" (USA) 42
IV Presentations: International Issufs and Actions
A. Allen, Irma A. "Environmental Education: Impact
on Three Aspects of Development In Africa"
(Swaziland) 46
B. Atchia, Michael. "Environmental Education In
Afrlca-A Review" (Mauritius) 51
C. Crespo Gualda, Reglna Elena. •'Environmental
Education and Latin America" (Brazil) .... 55
D. Ealey, E.H.M. "Contract Research as a Component
of Environmental Education" (Australia) ... 59
E. Francis, George. "Issues of the Great Lakes: A
Transnational Problem" (Canada) 63
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F. Greenall, Annette. "A New Beglnring for
Environmental Education In Australia"
(Australia) 63
G. Holmes, Roland C. "Environmental Education: A
Third World Experience" (USA) 67
H. James, Carlaton. "Environmental Education and
Public Awareness In the Wider Caribbean: An
Overview" (Barbados, West Indies) 70
I. Lleberman, Gerald A. "RARE: Environmental
Education Catalyst" (USA) 76
J. Lien, Arne. "Environmental Education
Implications of Technological Development In
the Arctic" (Norway) 79
K. Medina, Augusto 0. "The Caribbean Environmental
Education Program* (USA) 79
L. Metcalfe, Peter. "Environmental Science for
Solomon Islands Teachers: a Pattern for Third
World Countries?" (Australia) 81
M. Quaye, Eric C. "Towards the Development of
Environmental Literacy In a Developing
Country-Ghana" (Ghana, Africa) 86
N. Saxena, iC,G. "Ecological Implications of
Shifting Agriculture" (India) 87
0. Sellm. M. Saber. "Environmental Education In the
Arab States: Issues and Actions" (Egypt) . . 90
P. Simpson, Philip. "Education Prerequisites for
Integrating Conservation and Development In
New Zealand" (New Zealand) 95
Q. Slocombe, D. Scott. "International Environmental
Campdigns-Case Studies and Discussion"
(Canada) 99
R. Smyth. J.C. "The World Conservation Strategy and
Public Education: An Investigation of
Structures" (Scotland) 102
S. Sokoloff, Boris. "Australian Aborigines and
Environmental Education" (Australia) 106
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T. Srinlvasan, S. and O.K. Banerjee. "Environmental
Problems of Developing Countries and
Appropriate Solutions Through Environmental
Education" (India) 108
U. Trant, Anton. "A European Experiment In
Environmental Education" (Ireland) 108
V. Tribe, David. "The Role of the Gould League of
New South Wale'; In Environmental Education
In Australia" (Australia) 115
W. Tuntawlroon, Nart. "North-Soi/lh Dialogue"
(Thai land) 119
X. Webb, Joan. "An Australian Contribution to
Environmental Education in Thailand"
(Australia) 119
Y. Wheeler. Keltn. "The Role of the United Kingdom
Council for Environmental Education \n
Promoting Environmental Learning" (United
Kingdom) 123
Z. Panel: "A Network In Conservation. Natural
Resources, and Environmental Management
Education: A Model for the Eastern
Caribbean." Robert Roth (USA), Elsa Talero
(Columbia), Alfredo Morlllo (Dominican
Republic), Jill Sheppard (Barbados), John
Dislnger (USA) 123
1. Roth, Robert E. "A Research and
Development Communications Network for
Conservation, Natural Resources and
Environmental Management Education In
the Wider Caribbean** 124
2. Morlllo, Alfredo. "Environmental
Education In the Dominican Republic" . .128
Presentations: Governmental Roles In Environmental
Education
A. Baer. Richard A. "Preserving Human Freedom In
a Time of Environmental Crisis" (USA) . . . .133
B. Martin, Jim and Diana Thompson. •'Government
Support and Leadership In Environmental
Education" (Canada) 138
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C. Nelson, Kenneth J. "Overview of the Role of the
Environmental Education Advisory Committee to
the Environment Council of Alberta" (Canada) .138
0. Symposium: "Canada/US Environmental Relations" .143
1- Sokolsky, Joel J. "Canada, Congress, and
Transbcrder Environmental Issue!^" (USA)
2. Baldwin, John H. "Acid Rain: The Science
and the Conflict" (USA) 143
3. Schwartz, Alan M. "The Resolution of
Environmental Controversy by
International Diplomacy: The Case of
the Skagit R1ver/Ross Dam Controversy"
(USA) 144
4. Francis, George. International University
Study on Great Lakes Ecosystem
Rehabilitation" (Canada) 144
E. Pane^. : "Information and Dissemination Systems:
Recommendations, Realities, Possibilities."
Oavid L. Hanselman (USA), Tony Angell (USA),
Augusto Q. Medina (USA), John Dls'mger (USA),
John J. Padalino (USA) 144
1. Padalino, John J. "Information and
Dissemination 1n Environmental
Education" .145
2. Olslnger, John F. and Robert W. Howe.
"Clearinghouse* Functions for
Environmental Eoucatlon" 148
F. Panel: "Toward a National Center for
Environmental Education." John R. Paulk
(USA), Alexander J. Barton (USA), John J.
Padalino (USA) 152
1. Padalino, John J. "National and Regional
Centers for EE: Following up on the
Recommendations of the First National
Congress for Environmental Education
Futures-Policies and Practices" . . .152
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VI. Presentations: Environmental Issues
A. Backes, David. "The Air Ban War: Sigurd F. Olsc j
and the Fight to Ban Airplanes from the
Roadless Area of Minnesota's Superior National
Forest" (USA) 157
B. Cook, Oon. "The Acid Rain Forecast: Moderate
Precipitation, Visibility Limited" (USA) . . .160
C. Lanfried, Steven E. "Update from the
Subcontinent: Efforts to Save the Siberian
Crane" (USA) 164
0. McClaren, Milton. "Mediating the Unthinkable-
Discussing the Problem of Nuclear Arms With
Students" (Canada) 168
E. McKone, Thomas E. "Tracking the Global Fate of
Toxic Elements from Energy Systems" (USA) . .168
F. McNeil, Richard J. "International Environmental
Issues: Teaching at the University Level"
(USA) . .170
G. Ottum, Margaret G. "Education's Role in Toxic
Waste Control" (USA) 174
H. Page, Garnet T. "Industry's Task - To Keep
Nature in Business" (Canada) 178
I. Schultz, Judith M, "World Population Imperatives
Precipitate New Trends in Population Policy"
(USA) 183
J. Swihold, Susanne M. "Environmental Censorship
and the Media-A Test Case: The Fur Seal
Harvest of the Pribilof Islands" (Canadu) . .186
K. von Hofsten, Anne. "Acid Rain in a World
Conservation Strategy Perspective" (Sweden) .188
VII. Presentations: Nonformal Education
A. Allen, Barry. "People, Parks and Preservation"
(USA) 191
B. Anderson, Eddie. "Creating Environmental
/Awareness Through Natural Resources
Education" (USA) . .193
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Barwise, Joanne. "Development of an
Environmental Education Centre: The History
of Shannon Terrace Environmental tducatlon
Centre" (Canada) 197
0. Coombs, Hary S. "The Students Are the Explorers,
Discoverers and Scientists" (USA) 201
E. Fortner, Nina. ''Exploration Into the Night
Environment" (USA) 205
F. Greene, H. David. "Coastal Issues Small Grant
Program"* (USA) 205
G. Harding, Karen. "Interconnectedness: The
Emerging Paradigm" (USA) 207
ri. Hopkins, Charles. "Incorporating the Built
Environmental Education Program" (Canada) . .210
1. Kennedy, Carolyn L. "Strategies for
Involving Youth In Wildlife and
Environmental Issues" (USA) 210
J. McDonald, Kevin. "Community Environmental
Education In New South Males, Australia:
Issues, Strategies, and Chu;>nge" (Austral1a)211
K. Murray, Cam. "Education and Leadership: The
Role of Non-Profit Societies" (Canada) . . . .214
L. Vallentyne, John R. "Globes as Symbols of
Oneness" (Canada) 216
M. Yandala, Deb. "The Church as an Example of
Nonformal Environmental Education" (USA) . . .218
N. Yandala. Deb. "Values and Environmental
Education A Workshop Model for Training
Teachers and Leaders" (USA) 222
0. Panel: "Cultural Resource Management and the
Environmental Historian." Carroll Pursell
(USA), Samuel P. Hayes (USA), Martin V.
Melosi (USA), Thomas Den'.ap (USA) 223
P. Panel: "Environmental History In the Science
Curriculum." John H. Perkins (USA), Thomas
Ounldp (USA), Samuel P. Hayes (USA), Joseph
Siry (USA), Alfred Runte (USA) 224
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Q. Panel: "Issues and Interpretations In
Environmental History." Alfred Runte (USA),
John Opie (USA). Linda J, Lear (USA), Carroll
Pursell (USA), Morgan Sherwood (USA) 224
R. Panel: "The Past, Present and Future of
Environmental History." Morgan Sherwood
(USA), J. Donald Hughas (USA), Martin V.
Melosi (USA), Lisa Mighetto (USA), Donald
Worster (USA) 224
VIII. Presentations: Tertiary Education
A. Gell, Mike; Edward Pizzlnl and James Splvak.
"Simulating Competitive and Collaborative
Models for Decision Making" (USA) 225
B. Henning, Daniel H. "The Role and Neglect of
In-Service Environmental Training Programs In
Jnternat1ori?.l Environmental Education" (USA) .226
C. Horvat, Pobert E. "Erergy Education: Past or
Prologue?" (USA) 228
0. Hudspeth, Thomas R. "Utopian Visloning and the
Creation of Alternative Futures" (USA) . . . .232
E. Hunwick, John. "Training Pre-Serv1ce Teachers In
Environmental Educ&tlon-A South Australian
Approach" (Australia) 232
F. Hurry, Lynn B. "Environmental Education and
Primary School Teacher Education: Meeting the
Challenge of Inescapable Issues" (Republic
of South Africa) 235
G. Rallton, Esther P. "Where are the Jobs for
Graduates with Master's Degrees In
Environmental Education?^ (USA) 238
H. Shewchuk, Terry R. and Joan M. Snyder.
"Environmental Biology: Grande Prairie
Regional College" (Canada) ^40
IX. Presentations: Curriculum K-12
A. Andrews, Bill. "Environmental Education: A
Moral Base for Decision Making" (Canada) . . .242
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B. Carroll, James. "Outdoor Education Programs In
Metropolitan Toronto Schools" (Canada) . . . ,242
C. Clausen, Bernard L. "An Analysis of Teacher
Selection of Project Outlook Activities"
(USA) 246
0. D1 Chiro, Glovanna; wmiam Mor^.n and wmiam
Stapp. "Environmental Education and Commun'^ty
Problem Solving" (USA) 248
E. Fensham, Peter J. "New Movements In Science
Education: International Evidence Awareness"
(Australia) 253
F. Fleming, Lyn and Jennifer Clark. "The Time Is
Right To Do Something WILD" (USA and Canada) .258
G Harmon, Terry and Robert Schwab. "A Program of
Natural Resource Management at High School
Level" (USA) 259
H. Howard, Jeanne. "Visons of the Future: Premises
and Materials" (USA) 259
I. lozzl, Louis A. "Sclence-Technology-Soclety.
Dealing With Conflict Issues In Elementary
and Secondary Schools" (USA) 261
J. Kumar, B.N. "Environmental Education as an
Integrating Concept In the School Curriculum"
(Guyana) 262
r Leflos, Pattl. "Grar.ylUe Island Curriculum
Resources Book and Video" (Canada) 266
L. Lipka, Jerry. "Environmental Educati^r Alaskan
Style: The Bristol Bay Curriculum Project"
(USA) 266
M. Lubbers, James 0. "Environmental Education Is
Conspicuously Missing" (USA) 2S9
N. Mickelson, Belle Heffner; Janet Ady and Peggy
Cowan "Alaskan Environmental Education
Strategies" (USA) 272
0. Phillips. Hugh C. "Energize Your Curriculum:
1 to 6" (Canada) 273
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p. Phmips, Hugh C. "Energize Your Curriculum:
7 to 12" (Canada) ?73
Q. Phillips, Hugh C. "Hughlsms for Interpreting our
Natural World" (Canada) 273
R. Richards, Don. "Er^vlronmental Educa ion In
Practice: Across a School Curriculum"
(Republic of South Africa) 273
1. Jonsson, Caroline "How We Cover
Mathematics." 276
2. Champklns, Allen. "An Urban Survey: A
Geographical Study of our T>wn Mool
River." 278
3. Blain, Sally. "A Study of the
Drakensburg with Special Reference to
the Bushman." 281
4. Hurry, Nicola. "Science Section - The
Mool River." . 282
5. Laundy, Patrick. "The Zulu People and
Their Inter-relatlonship wUh the
Natural Environment." 284
6. Parvess, Barry. *^Zulu Cultui^e and
History." 286
7. Jaavacki Adam. "Urban Conservation." . 288
S> Smith, Elizabeth H. "Environmental Education and
the Sifted Student: a Survey of Some Inter-
national Programs In Schools" (USA) 290
T. Smith, Kay M. "Rationale and Mctlvltes for Early
Childhood Environmental Education: The Effect
of the Home and School on Envlrcnnental
Learning" (USA) 290
U. Stayton, Vickl and lenne Pool. "Environmental
Education and tne nung Child" (USA) 293
V. Stubbs, Harriet and Marylou Kllnkhammer, "Acid
Precipitation Informatlon/Educati on/Curriculum
Materials" (USA) 293
W. Wilson, Terry L. "Taking a '3YTE' out of the
Energy Problem: Bit by Bit" (USA) 294
Presentations : Research
A. Dayton, Thomas G. and Roger Allen. "Attitude
Changes of Youth at Environmental Education
Residential Camps" (ISA) 294
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B. Hanle, r.ohert. "BlocuUural Edu:at1on: A Post
Industrial Education Process" (USA) . . . .295
C. Fortner, Rosanne W. "Environmental Edu'^atlon
Adoption Potential of Inservlce Workshop
Participants In the U.S. and
Barbados" (USA) 298
D. Hines, Jody M, "An Analysis and Synthesis of
Research of Responsible Environmental
Behavior: A Meta-Analysis" (USA) 301
E. Hungerford, Harold R.; Audrey N. Tome«a, Trudi
L. Vilk, Archie P.C Sla and Jody M. Kines.
"Predicting Environmental Behavior" (USA) .305
F Larson, Mark A. "Theory Bu'.lding In
Environmental Education" (USA) 309
G. Liiubers, James 0. "Analysis of College
Students' Environmental ^^^roblems" (USA) . .315
H. Mills, Terence J. and Francis Fenderson.
"Children's Concept of Earth: Preconception
for Understanding the Biosphere" (USA) . .319
I. Nelson, Ray A. "Cognitive Models for
Developing Global Perspectives on
Environmental Problems" (USA) 323
J. Pe p son, Ervand M. "A Research Alternative
Environmental Education" (USA) 326
K. Puntenney, Pamela J. "Environmental Education
a Res:>ons1ve Policy Making Process: Pattern
of an Essential Alliance" (USA> 328
L. Robottom, Ian. "Evaluation In Environmental
Education: Time for Change In Perspective?"
(Australia) 332
M. Stevenson, Bob. "Curriculum Materials for
United States and Aus' allan Schools: An
Explanation of the Th^iory-Practlce 3ap In
Environmental Education" (USA) 334
N. Vogl, Robert; Sonia Vogl and William Stapp.
"Major Threats of Environmental Quality
In North America: A Survey" (USA) 339
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I. A. Bradley Honourable Fred 0., HInUter of the Env1ronir?nt,
Alberta, Canada.
It 13 a distinct pleasure to be Invited to address you this
evening. I note there are people attending this conference from all
over the i^orld. South America. Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia, North
America and In particular our neighbours from the United States* On
behalf of the Alberta Government I would like to welcome all of you to
Canada and Alberta and to Lake Louise.
I wou^d like to conmend the North American Association of
Environmental Education on Its decision to go 'contlneotaT and
demonstrate this by holding this conference In Alberta. I think you
will agre^ that you could not have chosen a more beautiful and
tranquil site than Lake Louise for your activities. It Is a truly
magnificent example of a natural environment. However, I'm sure that
you all bring with you concerns and reports about other environments
—your local environments—and through sharing, the focus of this
gathering will become the 'global environment*.
Understanding global environmental conditions and needs Is
difficult, even for those who make It their profession to understand.
Connecting local Initiatives and actions to the global view and needs
of environment Is difficult, even for those committed to undertaking
such Initiatives and actions, as minister responsible for the
sustenance of a quality environment In one small region of this globe
I applaud those professionals who understand and work toward this goal
accordingly.
However, I reserve a special respect for those professionals who
attempt, as you do, through educational programming, to addres: the
complexities of global environmental conditions to students,
communities and diverse publics* This respect Is heightened when I see
the atten^ots made to develop an Interest and Involvement of these same
audiences In their local environments, to act locally, to foster a
lifestyle cognizant of the need to sustain a quality environment.
However, education about and for the environment cannot be left to
the professionals alone. I firmly believe that education Is a
responsibility of society as a whole and that Includes matters of the
environment. It Is through education that the foundation for
meaningful discussion between differing value-oriented groups on
environmental Issues can occur. It Is the foundation for trust and
understanding between proponents and dissentors of cievelopments
affecting the quality of the physical envlrorment. It nourishes the
roots of a developing empathy for others needs and aspirations.
Alberta Environment Is In this business of education because
ultimately decisions have to be made, some value positions supported
and some rejected. It Is to our interest that the public understands
the basis for these decisions. But education is dynamic— ^it flows
both ways. As with an agency that makes decisions about the
environment there is a need for us to be part of the educational
program as recipient. Alberta Environment will undoubtedly learn much
from the proceedings of this conference.
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Alberta environmental educators have Instituted a number of
Initiatives of which we can be rightly proud and that demonstrate the
directions and commitment that the province has made to environmental
education. Proudly, we can say that the environmental education
movement In this province was achieved through broad grass roots
support. The Involvement of teachers, recreational leaders,
naturalists, Interpretors, university and college faculties,
environmentalists and parents concerned with quality learning
experiences for their children In and about the environment must be
recognized. These are the people who Initiated programs, who acted
and led others to act.
Though our history In environmental education Is not long, at
least In the formal sense, the list of achievements and depth of
programming Is truly astonishing. The list of school-based and
community environmental projects numbers In the thousands. The
efforts to Interpret t'ae school curriculum to Incorporate
environmental topics have been extensive^ The development of local
resource materials to support both school and community programs has
mushroomed. Formal and Informal organizing and networking to Improve
communications and coordination of effort and resources continues to
grow.
!n support of these efforts the Alberta Government has provided
extensive assistance for the past fifteen years. At present, eleven
government departments, services and agencies actively support formal
and Informal educational efforts on the environment- Direction for
formal environmental education lies dually with Alberta Education and
Alberta Advanced Education. Alberta Education Is reviewing, with the
university community, the possibility of providing credit instruction
In environmental education at both graduate and undergraduate levels.
Support for specific program development and special projects has
been afforded by other government departments. Three of these have
beon notably active In the field of environmental education. Alberta
Recreation and Parks has perhaps the longest history of support
offered In the area of environmental and outdoor education. With
Initial efforts at the Blue Lake Centre to provide leadership training
still continuing today, this department has br adened Its support to
Include: grant funding of special and Innovative projects; provision
of equipment and supplies; Initiating community- based leadersh'^p
programs; development of support materials; and, leadership,
consultation and coordination services through Its many professional
staff.
Alberta Energy and Natural Resources has, through three of Its
branches, developed a broad array of resources available to
environmental educators. Project WILD. Hunter Training, the Energy
Conservation Program and Junior Forest Wardens are Just a few of th^
programs reaching out to serve educators of our nat*jral resources.
The department which I am responsible for, Alberta Environment,
has also offered extensive support to educators for more than a
decade. Our Involvement has been In program development and
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teachei 'er 1nserv1ce. Lately, programs focusing on environmental
issues ano addressing core curriculum in the schools have been the
focus of most of our educational efforts in the department* We feel
that we have been, and will continue to be, responsive to the needs of
environmental educators in this province.
One should not forget that in this resource rich province there is
one other major source of support for education of the environment*
Industry has played a major role in support of environmental education
though often of an indirect nature* Support for relevant programming
has often come through funding of special programs* An excellent, and
perhaps the finest example of industry's support of environnmental
education has its toots in Alberta* The SEEDS Foundation, of i^ich I
am sure that many of you are familiar, demonstrates what can happen
when industry is included in the educational process*
I encourage you to attend the presentations made by Alberta
government staff and to view the displays outlining some of the
programs that have been developed here in Alberta*
Or* Stapp, Alberta educators are fortunate in your association's
choice of this part of Canada to hold your conference* It provides us
with a unique opportunity to learn from you~as we have learned by
more indirect means in the past* However, we do hope that this
learning will not all be one way* One would hope that in your
discussior.s, delivery of papers, formal sessions, and field trips, you
will learn extensively from each other and perhaps come to appreciate
the directions and growth of environmental education in Alberta*
In closing, I would like to leave one thought with you:
A Quality Environment is a ^ound economic Investment.
The challenge for policy mak<^rs is to recognize that short term
decisions which don't address environment protection, i*e* air, water
and land quality, may result in longer term economic, social and
environmental costs* I*E* ACID RAIN * Governments are now discussing
taking action on the clean->up of acid rain producing industries* The
question of cost and who is going to pay is a serious question* There
is no doubt that society will be asked to bear some of these costs*
Had decision makers known the cost of clean-up cost to reduce acid
rain today, I am sure that they would have recognized that p ollution
a^ ntement and control would have made sound economic sense back when
these industrial developments were approved*
Environmental Education, I believe, mi., include selling
environmental protection as sound economics*
I note from your agenda you will have plenty of time to take in
Alberta's natural environment* Enjoy yourselves and please take time
to see some of the other features of orr diverse and beautiful
province and country*
Hay I take this opportunity to wis;» you all the best, that you
have a successful conference, and that your efforts on behalf of the
environmeni everywhere are successful also*
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l.B. Fraser, John, " Status of Environmental Education Issues 1n
Canada ," Minister of Fisheries and Oceans, House of Commons,
Vancouver, South, 120 Federations Building, Ottawa, Ontario, KIA
0E6, Canada.
rd like to begin by bringing you greetings from the Honourable
Suzanne Blals-Grenler, Minister of Environment. Tm delighted to meet
with you again. The last occasion, as some of you may recall, was at
your 1982 meeting In Lake George, New York.
When 6111 Stapp Invited me to this Conference last February, he
mentioned that your groi'p had changed Its name from the National
Association for Environment Education to the North American
Association for Environment Education.
i applaud the change for two reasons. First because your new
name does reflect the reality that when we North Americans start
thinking about our environmental problems, we pretty soon come up
against the reality that they don't fit neatly on either side of the
49th parallel, or Indeed on either side of state anJ provincial
boundaries. The other reason Is a little more prosaic. By changing
your name you've given me an excellent opener for the point I hope to
make In this address.
Which In simple terms Is this: The environmental agenda
confronting us Is made up very largely of Issues which are simply too
large, too all-embracing, and too complex to be treated as purely
domestic concerns. Most are International, and many are global In
their ecological Implications and also in their political
Implications. Whether the aim Is to defeat long range air pollution
across national borders or to davelop a coherent water management
policy within borders, success for the governments Involved depends on
wide horizons.
Our conceptual horizons are being stretched by two forces. One of
these Is the Impact uf modern technology and Industrialization. The
pressure of the huitan race on the environment grows heaMer by the
day. Our numbers multiply, we burn more energy, we consume more of
our resources, we assail air and water and land with new and more
persistent chemical combinations. In this crowded, mechanized world,
environmental problems don't fit neatly within the lines on a map,
parish pump politics don't generate solutions. What one nation or
state or province does affects other Jurisdictions; polluters and
polluted are reminded constantly that they are not In separate
worlds. In that sense we are learning by hard experience. In a more
positive way, our concepts are being widened by scientific discovery.
We know more than we did. We are finding out that environmentally we
are linked In ways we did not previously realize.
My perspective on these changes Is not that of a scientist or an
ecologlst, but of a member of the government with a responsibility to
the public. As a former Minister of Environment and now as Minister
of Fisheries and Oceans, I have a special Interest In environmental
politics. I've been particularly fascinated by the political process
the chemistry - by which, In an open society like ours, new
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understandlng of envlroritnental problems translates eventually into
concrete environmental action. Along the way I've also come to
unaerstand the significance to that process of informed and active
groups such as this one. with that In mind, I want to pass on some
observations about the way the process has worked In the past, and go
on from that to how I think It will have to work In the future.
In the case of purely national problem solving, you can usually
divide the process roughly into three phases. In Phase One, the
problem Is spotted, so to speak, from the crow's nest by the
scientific lookout, the person with a special Informed interest In the
problem. In Phase Two the alarm Is sounded, usually by groups like
this one. Then and only then Is the latent political power of public
opinion mobilized and focused. In Phase Three you get political
action. We saw that sequence In the 1960's. It took a long time to
go from Phase One to Two, but beyond that point, action came very
quickly.
And with good reason, a great deal of political energy was being
generated In a very direct way. In most cases, polluters and the
polluted were neighbors and fellow citizens. Environmental
constituencies came naturally into existence. Political pressure
could be quickly mobilized and readily translated into corrective
measures.
w;ien the problems were International, events followed a somewhat
different scenario. In the case of the Great Lakes for instance,
environmental problems festered quietly for decades. Action did not
come until It was compelled by something close to catastrophe. One
reason was, undoubtedly, environmental Ignorance. People didn't
understand the deterioration and what It meant to their communities.
Another was the existence of borders, not Just the ones drawn on maps
between nations and provinces and states, but the crucial ones which
limit our definitions of the possible.
These conceptual barriers have been broken In the past. Aruund
the turn of the century, Americans and Canadians were discovering that
there were certain environmental problems. Including minor disputes
about fisheries and water that could not be solved unllate.ally. That
discovery lead to the Boundary Haters Treaty of 1909. And the treaty
In turn led to the establishment of the International Joint
Commission, which In spirit and accomplishment has given us some of
the world's most encouraging examples of International cooperation on
environmental matters. In the ensuing 50 years the IJC conducted many
studies of trouble spots In the Lakes and other shared waters. In the
mid 1960's the Commission was authorized to Investigate the build up
of eutrophlcatlon In the Lakes, particularly In Lake Erie. And In the
early 1970's, Impelled and reinforced I'm sure by the environmental
movement of the era, Canada and the United States launched their
massive Joint cleanup of the Lakes under the Great Lakes Water Quality
Agreement.
The arrival of the sea lamprey, via the Wei land Canal, was the
disaster to the fisheries of the Lakes that prompted action. The
lamprey wrought so much devastation among prime stocks of lake trout
and whiteflsh that It could not be Ignored.
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Congress, Parliament, the state houses on the American side, and the
legislature In Ontario, a11 saw the light. That awakening led to the
formation of the Great Lakes Fishery Commission and a highly
successful International attack against the lamprey.
But the real test of our ability to respond In a transboundary way
to transboundary challenges came much later with acid rain. In this
Instance, with one or two significant changes In the cast of
characters, the three phase sequence I*ve talked about, did In fact
occur. There was certainly a time lag between Phase One and Phase
Two. Scientists had published reports on acid rain In Canada and the
United States In the early 1970' s. But not until 1979 did acid rain
become a public Issue and It achieved that status In a different way
from the Issues ov the 1960's. The constituency for cleanup could not
come together spontaneously In this case on the basis of perceived
common Intermit. For one thing, the pollution Itself was Insidious
and stealthy. For another, the makers of acid rain and those on whom
It fell were on different sides of hutlon. state and provincial
borders. The polluter's victims couldn't reach him. and the
polluter's neighbors didn't care. That raised the question about the
political process, how. In this situation without smoj and bellyup
fish could you mobilize a constituency for cleanup? The situation. In
fact, called for politicians *-o assume the role of bell ringer. Our
task, as Minister of Environment at the time, was one In which I was
directly Involved, not just to reflect and transmit public will, but
to raise awareness. The task. In fact, was to mobilize a constituency
against acid rain. Not just a national constituency but one that
represented all the afflicted In all jurisdictions, a North American
constituency, a coalition we hoped, of the ralned-upon. The only way
we could do that was by Canadians and Americans moving out from behind
some of the conceptual fences and talking directly to each other as
members of one transboundary constituency.
That constituency took hold and It exists today. On both sides of
the national border and on both sides of state and provincial borders.
Canadian and American politicians, supported by environmental groups,
have discovered, proclaimed and acted upon their common Interest.
They have found their allies and. as you would expect, their opponents
on both sides of national and other boundaries. Their operational
premise Is that acid rain Is not Canada's problem or the problem of
the United States. It Is North America's problem. In fisheries terms
the acid rain casualties Include not only Nova Scotlf. "(almon but trout
In the Adirondacks. The zones of devastation Include not only
thousands of Ontario lakes, but hundreds of miles of fishless streams
In Great Smoky National Park, and many more In Pennsylvania.
I'm not here to claim that the process has In fact carried us to a
successful conclusion. It hasn't. Acid rain continues to fall — we
are still In the midst of an unfolding North American ecological
tragedy. But In at least one respect there has been progress, that
transboundary constituency exists. And. given the new and more
constructive relationship that exists In Canada-U.S. relations, we can
look with optimism to the future.
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ray present Job, I m mnlster not only of Fisheries but Oceans.
It Is an area on which we will be placing more emphasis In the
future. It's also an area with Its full share of environmental
jvrobleras and Interconnections some of which we are only beginning
to understand*
One example In El Nino an occ'^n phenomenon characterized by the
sudden Intrusion of warm waters Into parts of the ocean which are
normally cool. As , as the 1960's It was thought of as a
purely regional pher ...vrt confined to the waters of the eastern
Pacific off Latin America. We know today It's a global one, with
Impacts on climate that register throughout the entire equatorial
area of the planet. The El Nino of 1982-1983 caused simultaneously,
the worst drought of the century In Australia, devastating rains In
parts of the southern United States and Latin America, and some of the
worst hurricanes ever to hit Tahiti and other islands of the south
central Pacific. In Canada, El Nino resulted In one of the mildest
winters recorded In British Colunri)1a, and considerable changes In the
migrations of fish stocks.
This train of events Illustrate a definite relationship between
the dynamics of ocean and climate. Scientists say It Is possible to
learn enough about the cause-and-effect relationships to make the
effects predictable, and the eronomic and other benefits of that would
be Immense.
The problem Is that no one nation has enough of the pieces to
complete the puzzle alone. If we are to understand El Nino and
benefit from that understanding, we must seek the answers together.
And In this case, too, we need to begin with the uncomfortable
exercise of discarding familiar and obsolete concepts. We need to go
on from there to mobilize a constltuencv to support this effort. In
this case, one with a hemispheric field of vision.
I want to turn now to an Issue thac probably makes the case for a
new politics of the environment better than any other. I mean the
documented, ominous buildup of cirbon dioxide In the atmosphere, the
so-called "greenhouse effect."
As a measuring stick for the relevance of our political conce^ :s
and Institutions, this Is probably the most Instructive Issue of the
lot. It exhibits many of the characteristics of the new breed of
environmental challenge. Like acid rain n Is Insidious. It Isn't
something you can see or feel. At this point. If this problem
reylsters In the public mind at all. It does so In terms of dry
scientific measurements and speculations about effects In what seems
to be a safely distant future. As with acid rain one of the
challenges It poses Is <1mply convincing people that there really Is
something out there to be worrying about. And yet whit we are
confronted with here Is a problem that knowledgeable and cautious
people have called the most profound environmental Issue facing
humanity.
Let's review ti.e facts. Massive amounts of CO2 are being
released Into the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels.
Roughly half of that amount Is staying In the atmosphere where. In
simple terms. It oC*^^ as a thermal mirror, passing the ref letted heat
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from our planet Dack to earth. We're told, on good authority, that
the CO2 loading of the atmosphere will double over the next 70 to
100 years. If that happens, according to some forecasters the average
temperature of the earth could rise by two per cent. That's a
worldwide average. In high latitude countries It would probably be
more. Some experts say, for Inslance, that the Increase In Canada
would not be two per cent but anywhere from four to eight per cent.
One needs to make a mental effort to translate these dry numerical
predictions Into a picture of the physical results. The predictions
vary from pessimistic to reasonably bright, fr^m slight Improvements
for some regions, to absolute disasters for others. Some studies
suggest that the Western prairies could become deserts. The Icecaps
would diminish. The water they release would lUt the ocean level and
put many areas Including, I believe, 30X of the state of Florida
underwater .
Looking this grim scene over, one has to ask whether the
greenhouse effect Is a good Illustration of the need for wider
environmental constltutencles. With a problem so Immense, Is It
likely that any responses would be adequate? We can't take all the
traffic off the roads. We can't ground all the aircraft. We can't
turn off the heat and the lights all over the world.
It Is a reasonable question. The answer Is that there are things
we can and must do. We must learn more about the phenomenon Itself.
We need to chart Its progress more precisely, we must define Its
timetable. That missing half of CO2 that Isn't getting Into the
atmosphere needs to be located. Presumably It's going Into the
ocean. If so, how much CO2 can the oceans absorb? What Influence
should the greenhouse effect have on our plans for energy
development? What should we be doing to avert some of the stock and
dislocation that changes will bring to some regions? What shoulcJ we
be doing to oenefit from climatic changes that favor some regions^
To say that we In Canada are Interested In climate variations of
any kind Is an understatement. We live In a narrow margin of
climate. A couple of degrees one way or another, sustained long
enough, can make us or break us. Fisheries, forestry, agriculture,
those three sectors are pillars of our national life. All three are
sensitive to climate variations.
No single discipline Is 1nc1s1/e enough to comprehend the
problem. No one country Is large enough or rich enough to answer the
questions single handed. So this too Is an area where the world has
been dragged kicking and struggling by stark environments realities
Into global collaboration. In this case the mechanism Is the World
Climate Program coordinated through the U.N. system. This country Is
making Its contribution. The Canadian Cllmawe Centre was established
by Environment Canada eight years ago and It coordinates a general
Canadian Climate Program. Canada has been monitoring CO2 In the
atmosphere since 1969. The Institute of Ocean Sciences, has been a
leader In the study of CO2 levels In vne Pacific Ocean using Its own
vessels and commercial ships as measurement platforms.
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To sum U up, this Is a time when the challenge of preserving the
human environment has become a challenge to our perception of our
ability to adapt to change. Your group has a crucial role to play.
You are capable of greater maneuverability. You can adapt more
quickly than rigid government organizations. New environmental
challenges have produced this new cross boundary. In some cases global
constituency. It Is a constituency made up of people concerned about
where we are going, people who are not going to care much about
quill-pen diplomacy, people who will form together In coalitions that
are skeptical about protocols as a wav co achieve goals * coalitions
that will not hesitate to cross bourlarles no flatter how upset
traditionalists may get about It. You In this Association should be
the natural leaders and moblllzers of this coalition, throughout North
America as your new title suggests, and globally too. If that's what's
required.
In closing, I'd like to return to the subject of add rain and In
particular to the challenge It makes to our preceptlon. We have made
agonizingly slow progress toward the joint effort we need.
Nevertheless, there are signs that the International transboundary
consciousness Is evolving, that the constituency tor the environment
1s gaining strength.
We have some progress to show. In 1979 Canada and the United
States joined with member nations of the European Economic Community
In signing the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.
That Convention Is now In force. It requires the countries who signed
It to exchange information on control strategies, to conduct research,
end to take account of transboundary pollution In the planning of new
plants that emit sulphur dioxide. Canada and nine other nations now
belong to the "30 per cent club", countries which have pledged to cut
SO2 emissions by at least 30X- Membership 1n this club Is not
closed; other nations are welcome.
We Canadians have gone even further. Canada has pledged to begin
Its own attack on acid rain aiming for a SOX reduction In Sulpher
dioxide emissions based on 1980 levels by 1994^ We realize In doing
so that this action alone will not solve the problem, but we are
confident that In time, the United States will join us In this work to
preserve our common heritage, are confident, In short, that the
transboundary heritage will prevail.
KC, Brown, Noel, "The International Environment." Director. New
York Llason Office, UnUed Nations Environment Program, United
Nations Building. New York, New York, USA.
(Speech not available at this printing.)
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I.i. Baez, Albert V., "The World Conservation Strategy and
Environmental Education." Chairman, lUCN Commission on
Education, Greenbrae, California, USA.
INTRODUCTION
We are here to try to Implement the now famous adage of Rene
Dubois to "think globally and act locally". Hy purpose today Is to
remind you of the role that the World Conservation Strategy of the
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(lUCN) has played and can continue to play In Implementing Dubois*
admonition.
Many of you work on local environmental problems possibly without
considering their global Implications but some of us, I am afraid, are
so caught up In International work and concentrating on the global
Issues that we have no time to get Involved In local problems thereby
running the risk of losing touch with the local reality. Both groups
must, obviously, strive for a better balance (i).
I am delighted to be In Banff for the first time. I can see at
least one reason why so many of us were attracted to come to this
Conference. The legendary natural beauty of Banff reminds us of what
the Earth can be like when It Is not ravaged by the careless Impact of
modern technological society. It Is a fit place to celebrate the
causes of conservation and environmental education.
Canada has been kind to me In providing a platform for the
expression of my views on envlornmental education. The last occasion
was thft Man Environment Impact Conference held In Ontario In 1982 and
I would like to begin my talk today where I left off then. In my
concluding remarks there I pointed out that the long-term
Implementation of the goals of lUCN's World Conservation Strategy
demands the development of a world environmental education strategy
whose main objective would be to Infuse an environmental ethic Into
all educational activities worldwide.
Two years have passed since the Ontario conference. There has
been a great deal of activity In envlronmontal education worldwide.
My term of office with lUCN Is coming to an end and before It does I
would like to make two suggestions to the Banff conference In order
not to lose the momentum which has been gained. One Is that the topic
of a world environmental education strategy be kept alive and
elaborated during this conference and ano^he- Is that you Issue, In
the name of the Conference, a resolution a declaration which
supports worldwide cooperation for envlronhK^ntal education. It might
be called the Banff Declaration.
1 will return to these topics later.
THE WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY
Most of you in this audience already know about the World
Corservation Strategy (2). For the benefit of those who don't,
however, I shall begin by giving a brief review of this Important
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document, how 1t came about and what role U can play ln g1v1nti
environmental education a global focus.
I will then discuss some a^eas where the message of the Strategy
needs to be augmented from the point of view of education and,
finally, T will express some thoughts on how to get started on a world
environmental education strategy and a Banff declaration.
In what follows I will be quoting freely from the Strategy and
from the booklet titled " An Introduction to the World Conservation
Strategy" (3) which was written by Stan Croner to present the Strategy
In non-technical language Illustrated with striking photographs by
world- renowned photographers. And at the end of my talk we will
screen Mark Boulton's new audio visual presentation titled "Planning
for Survival" to further Illustrate the concerns of the World
Conservation Strategy.
The World Conservation Strategy has been called "a blueprint for
survival." It Is a 72-page document that directs the world's
attention to the Increasingly dangerous stresses being put on the
earth's biological systems and recommends measures for relieving
them. It represents the efforts of more than 450 government agencies
and conservation organizations, and more than 700 scientists and other
specialists from round the world working in collaboration with lUCN,
the world Wildlife Fund (WWF), and with the support of the United
Nations Environment Programme (U.JEP).
The goal of the Strategy Is the Integration of conservation and
development to ensure that modifications to the planet do Indeed
secure the survival and well-being of all people. It calls on all the
rations to adopt conservation policies and practices at home, to Join
International efforts to Improve the human environment worldwide, and
to protect the biosphere that sustains all life on earth.
The main purpose of the Strategy Is to persuade the nations of the
world to adopt ecologically sound development practices. The Strategy
provides remedies, applicable worldwide, for the on-going destruction
of nature that casts such a dark shadow over the future of our
species. It points the way for development-minded and
conservation-minded people to unite in a common drive toward survival
and a life of dignity for all people on the shared planet.
The Problem - A Deteriorating Planet
The World Conservation Strategy addresses itself to the problem of
a deteriorating planet. The biosphere, the earth's thin layer of air,
water, soil and living things that sustains us is deteriorating
because of the burdens put on it by our Increasing numbers and needs.
The combined destructive Impacts of a poor majority struggling to stay
alive and an affluent minority consuming most of the world's resources
are undermining the very means by which all people can survive and
flourish.
By the end of the century there will be about 6,000 million people
on the earth and four fifths of them will be 1n the Third World. Kore
than 2,000 million people today are landless peasants In the
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-leveloplng countries. Caught 1n a dally struggle for enough food and
fuel to stay alive, they strip the land bare of trees and bushes for
firewood. They overgraze grassy drylands and overfish and overhunt
local wildlife. Many migrate to crowded cities where they find
shelter In slums and shanty towns often falling victim to hunger and
disease. Such widespread poverty has resulted In the devastation of
large areas of once-fertile land on three continents.
Only about 25X of the world's people live In the developed, richer
nations of Europe and Morth America, and In countries such as Japan
and Australia and the OPEC nations. Yet these countries account for
80% of the world's consumption of resources. The developed nations
also suffer the Ills of environmental abuse. In many developed
countries forests are being logged faster that tre*$ are growing.
Pollutants, the side products of Industrialization and high
cons'-^tlon, continue to degrade the a1r and poison around water
supplies, rivers, lakes and coastal waters (4).
The earth. If It Is to provide the means by which all people can
survive and prosper, can no longer tolerate the destruction of living
systems by either the poorer or the richer natV-ns. It Is the task of
this generation to act to reverse the damaging trends that are making
the planet less and If s fit to live on.
The W rid Conservation Strategy points the way to what must be
done If we are to satisfy the needs of the world's people and, at the
same time, preserve the earth's living systems on which all life
depends for surv1v£^
The first objective: to maintain ecological processes and l ife support
systems.
If the earth Is to be able to support Its growing human
population, we must, according to the Strategy, make certain Its
essential ecoloilcal processes and life support systems are maintained
and functioning properly. It defines and Illustrates the meaning of
thesp Important concepts. It points out, for example, that at the
rate agricultural lands are being damaged by erosion and poor
Irrigation practices, and being put to uses other than farming. In 20
years close to a third of the world's arable land will be unsu. table
for growing crops. If the rate of loss continues. It will likely
result In famines and huroar jnlsery on a scale never before known In
hu«nan history. It considers. In particular the Important roles played
by tropical forest systems, coastal wetlands and fresh water systems.
The Strategy provides guidelines for the protection and maintenance of
the earth's life support system;.
The second objective: to perservt genetic diversity .
The Strategy's second main objective for keeping the earth
habitable for humans Is the preservation of genetic dive. s1ty. This
means taking steps to ensure tha^ the earth's many species of plants
and animals are protected from extinction. The greatest threat comes
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from the destruction and degradation of habltits. The most serious
threat to genetic diversity Is the continuing destruction of tropical
nin fore ts, the roost species-rich land environments on earth.
Because half of all plant and an; Ml species live in these forests,
their destuctlon would result In the mass extinctions that would
permanently Impoverish tti planet.
There are other reasons for preserving the species which are not
stressed in the Strategy but which, according to Stan Croner. are
Important In the development of an environmental ethic. Simple human
compassion is one. Respecting the rights of othar kinds of life to
exist Is another. The extraordinary beauty of natural forms is yet
another. Perhaps most Important, we are obligated to our descendants
not to leave the earth less alive, less interesting and less wondrous
because we have been here.
The Strategy calls on all governments to participate in
International programs and treaties designed to preserve tne world's
genetic lesources. And because the earth's gene pool Is a coiwion
heritage of all humankind, the Strategy recommends financial aid to
less developed nations to help them preserve the species-rich
ecosystems that lie within their border.
The third objective: to ensure the sustainable utilization of species
and ecosystems .
One way to consider living resources, forests, soils, water,
plants and animals. Is to regard them as biological capital available
for human use. If we use up this capital, It will no longer produce
interest: the food, raw materials and life supporting services we need
to survive. Currently, our specUs Is consuii.1ng the capital by, far
example, overfishing, overgrazing and unsuitable farming practices,
denuding the land In search of firewood, through deforestation of
watershed forests and by the accidental killing of non -target animals
In the nets of fls'ilng fleets.
The Strategy's ultimate goal Is a sustainable society. To that
end. It calls upon the nations of the world to Join International
efforts to protect the global commons: the open oceans, the atmosphere
and Antarctica and the Southern Ocean.
Choices
In 1982, Mustafa Tolba, Executive Director of the UN Environment
Prograrwne Issued this blunt warning: " nations have two choices: to
carry on as they are and face by the turn of the century an
environmental catastrophe as complete, as Irreversible as any nuclear
holocaust, or to begin now In earnest a cooperative effort to use the
world's resources rationally and fairly".
Someone has called the nuclear holocaust the "fast bang" and
environmental ravaging the "slow bang." What Tolba Is saying Is that
the final effect would be the same In either case, the devastation of
the planet, its life and Its resources.
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The Strategy concludes: "Human beings, 1n theU quest for economic
development and enjoyment of the riches of nature, must come to terms
wich the reality of resource limitation and the carrying capacities of
ecosystems, and must take Into account the needs of future
generations. This Is the message of conservation."
THE WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY AND THE ROLE OF EDUCATION
The World Conservation Strategy Is not an educational document.
It devotes only one pag^* to education. It concentrates on how
education should be used for building support for corservatlon but It
docs not spell out In any detail what needs to be done In education,
nor who should do It, nor who will fund educational projects. It
poses, but does not solve, educational problems. It leaves It to its
readers to invent solutions. In other words, It does not propose an
environmental education strategy^
But In its defense I must say that the initial paragraph of the
section on education in the Strategy is an eloquent statement of the
fact that the domain of environmental education is broader than
conservation, and that environmental education must have an ethical
component. Here it is:
"Ultimately the behavior of entire societies towards the biosphere
must be transformed if the achievement of conservation objectives is
to be assured. A new ethic, embracing plants and animals as well as
people, is "required for human societies to live in harmony with the
natural world on which they depend for survival and wellbeing. The
long term task of environmental education is tc foster or reinforce
attitudes and behaviour compatible with this new ethic."
For me the infusion of an environmental ethic into all of
education has become the most important overall aim of environmental
education.
I do not intend to redefine environmental education here. This
has been thrashed out in many previous conferences and summarized
neatly in the Unesco report titled "Environmental Education in the
Light of the Tbilisi Conference".
What I have to contribute are some personal reflections on topics
which I feel should be given prominence in devising an environmental
education strategy. If yju keep in i^ind my background you will
understand and compensate for the biases I might have.
I am a physicist hy profession and a science educator as a result
of my association with the curriculum reform movements of the Physical
Science Study Committee of the U.S., of Unesco, of ICSU and of several
other organizations. My comprehension of biological concepts is
limited but my acquaintance with science education internationally is
broad. I am a peace activist out of conviction and sensitive to the
needs of developing countries because I was born in one and worked in
several of them. I have been influnced by the recent works of Capra
(6) (7), Roszak (8), Berman (13) and Lovelock (14). In the light of
this background, then, here are some topics which I believe merit an
expanded treatment in the World Conservation Strategy and would be
Important in the design of ao environmental education strategy.
o 29
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1 . Population
As I have stated many tiroes elsewhere (9). of the 4 P's:
oopulatlon, pollution, poverty and the problems of peace* population
Is the roost serious one and Is not j1ven sufficient prominence ^n the
World Conservation Strategy. All the problems of a deter 1orat1/ig
planet art aggravated by the fact that the number of people on the
planet keeps Increasing ^ven In countries where the birth rate has
decreased drastically
Incidentally, the time In years >^equ1red for the population to
double Is given by the simple forrr^ula: 70 divided by the percentage
rate of growth. If the percentage growth Is Z%, for example, 70
divided by 2 gives 35 years which Is the world average doubling time
for population growth. But there are countries, like Mexico for
example, where the percentage increase 1s greater than 2 and for which
the population doubling time is, consequently, less than 35 years.
Environmental education should work closely with national and
International organizations, like the International Planned Parenthood
Organization, whose concern Is to slow down the expansion of the
world's population. An environmental ethic should stress the need for
considering the damaging effect which a burgeoning human population
has upon the biosphere.
2- The Peace amd Armaments Issues
Sustainable development Is Impossible In a state of war and
extremely difficult If sizable expenditures are utilized for armaments
1r time of fiace. War and preparations for war tend to be
exorbitantly wasteful In teims of natural and human resources.
Preparations for nuclear war on earth or In space devour resources at
nroh1b1t1ve rates. So the Issues of war and peace, armament and
disarmament and violent or nonviolent approaches to the solution of
political problems all Impinge upon environmental education and should
be taken into account (10)
3. Th e Role of Science In Environmental Education
Th(* new science which Is basic for a consideration of
environmental problems Is ecology (11). As an academic discipline it
Is usually treated at the i!n1vers1ty level. But ecological principles
should be considered 1n designing environmental education activities
at all levels, both In and out of school. Ecology Is an eclectic
science which draws upon the other basic sciences of physics,
chemistry, bluU^y and the sciences of earth and space.
I believe that environmental education must be solidly based on
the facts and approaches of science. It will, I believe, benefit from
a stronger Infusion of the processes and products of science.
We need to continue training research scientists but I believe
that even they should have a general education strongly infused with
an environmental ethic so they can look at science In the light of Us
overall environmental Impact. Integrated science courses. In
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partUular, could benefit from the use of the environment as an
Integrating theme (12).
There are Interesting thoughts abroad In the philosophy of
science. One Is an awareness that stems from the Helsenberg
uncertainty principle of physics at one extreme and systems analysis
at the other, that scientific Investigation cannot be as purely
objective as the pioneer scientists and philosophers like Newton and
Descartes once thought. These new approaches support the
environmental Insight that man has to be considered as one of the
variables in the global equation (13).
Another Idea stems from the growing scientific evidence that the
Earch behaves like a self<-heal1ng organism (14). This hypothesis
deserves further study because It may give us both scientific and
philosophical Incentives to care for Mother Earth. These new ways of
looking at the earth may lead us toward a feeling of respect and
compasslson for the earth as our habitat^ and as the source of life
and of our basic necessities such as food, shelter and clothing.
4. An Environmental Ethic
Although the adage "all power corrupts and absolute power corrupts
absolutely" refers to political power. It contains some truth as
regards the physical power which science and Its partner technology
have given us. With enough powerful bulldozing machines we could, for
example, demolish In a relatively short time a pyramid that took many
men possibly decades to build. With a nuclear blast we could vaporize
It In an Instant. These considerations lead us again to the need for
moral restraint and ethical guidelines In environmental education.
These Issues then: population, peace and armaments, science and
ethics, are examples of topics In environmental education which could
be elaborated further In a revised version of the existing World
Conservation Strategy or be Incorporated Into a new world
environmental education strategy.
The list Is not exhaustive and the responses from members of my
Commission have convinced me that there Is a wealth of Information and
Insights on environmental education which can be tapped from our
network.
For example, John Balnes says: *...we must have the courage to
divert resources from armaments If we are to achieve peace through a
safer and more caring world."
Alexander Peal reminds us that we have not addressed ourselves to
the needs of the absolutely poor.
Chris Haas Geesteranus warns us that the consumption patterns of
the Industrialized world are wreaking havoc In the Third World.
Sophie Jakowska tells us that there are theological Issues
associated with the environmental ethic and that organized religion
could be an ally in the Implementation of an environmental education
strategy.
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Bartholemle VaohUa gives us the catch phrase "development without
destruction" to summarize the essence of "sustainable development."
I could quote many others but I must move on.
TOWARD A WORLD ENVIRONNENTAL EDUCATION STRAT££V
Now let me quote directly from another part of the Strategy where
It stresses the need for other strategies to be developed In parallel
with one for conservation:
"Living resource conservation Is Just one of a number of
conditions necessary to assure hui^n survival and wellbeing, and a
world conservation strategy Is but one of a number of strategies
needed: a strategy for peace; a strategy for a new International
economic order; a strategy for human rights; a strategy for overcoming
poverty; a world food supply strategy; a population strategy. All
such strategies should be mutually reinforcing* None has much chance
for success unless they are."
When I read that paragraph It occurred to me and to several other
members of my Commission that an educational strategy belonged in this
list. Th€ topic was brought up In several meetings, starting in 1980,
and considerable Interest was generated in the creation of a world
environmental education strategy, but enthusiasm for this Idea died
out for lack of official support from International organizations.
I think, however, the time has come to breathe new life Into this
old Idea. If r^^tlonal environmental organizations like yours around
the world raised the priority of this Item on their agendas It would
be possible to create task forces In different parts of the world to
begin discussing environmental education strategies, first at the
regional and local levels, and later at the International level,
eventually with support from an International organization. An
International conference might be convened to pool loaas from the
different regions to form the basis for a global approach. If an
extraordinary effort were put into Its prepararatlon, such a
confernece might be held three years from now (certainly no sooner).
The least one could hope for would be that It be discussed at the
meeting of the Commission on Education of lUCN at Its next General
Assembly meeting In 1987.
I think that discussions of a world environmental education
strategy could begin by studying Section 13 of the Woi Id Conservation
Strategy In which f'ducatlon programmes and campaigns are proposed to
build support for conservaton.
Let's begin by stating that one of the principal alms of a world
environmental education strategy should be to build support for
conservation through environmental education activities as suggested
In the world Conservation Strategy. How this Is translated Into
action depends on environmental needs as perceived locally but
visualized. If possible, wUhln a global context.
32
A BANFT DECLARATION
At the end of my talk 1n Ontario, Craig Copland read a resolution
which had been penned by John Smyth of lUCN's Commission on
Education. It forms part of the tape recording of that session but It
has never appeared In print. Here It is:
"Whereas the World Conservation Strategy has provided a foundation
for the global improvement of our quality of life through the
conservation of living resources and whereas education Is a vital
component In the achieving of a sustainable society, Man Environment
Impact 1982 affirms Its high regard for the educational objectives of
the lUCN expressed through the work of Its Commission on Education and
urges that the highest priority be given to continuing support for
worldwide conservation education as fundamental to the achievement of
the alms of the World Conservation Strategy."
I suggest that the Copland/Smyth statement be studied as the basis
of a Banff declaration which reinforces the need for a world
environmental education strategy based upon the Infusion of an
environmental ethic Into all of education.
Let me conclude with the following thoughts:
Man prides himself In being the only intelligent animal on the
earth. Yet he Is the only one that has caused such vast devastation
on the biosphere (15) (16) (17) (18).
In less than a thousand years, which Is the blink of an eye In
geologic time, he hos consumed most of the fossil fuels which took
nature millions of years to produce. The air we breathe Is full of
noxious fumes and radioactive particles of his making.
He has placed millions of tons of concrete and cement on roads and
cities where there were once forests and wildlife. At least 3000
square kilometers of prime farm land Is disappearing each year under
buildings and roads In developing countries alone.
Thousands of millions of tons of soil are being lost each year as
d result of deforestratlon and poor land management.
Hundreds of millions of rural people In developing countries are
forced to strip their land of vegetation In order to find woo'^J for
cooking and heat.
Each year 4000 million tons of dung and crop residues are burned
for fuel which could otherwise regenerate soils.
Now man has the capability of generating a nuclear holocausc which
could devastate the biosphere and make life on earth extinct.
There are those who believe that a world environmental education
strategy Is too grandiose a scheme. But what, short of that, Is going
to reverse the trends that are driving us to demage the planet even
further?
I believe Man Is Intelligent enough to develop a world
environmental education strategy which will Infuse all of educotlon
with an environmental ethic so that we can move away from the
destruction of species and ecosystems and lead to development without
destruction, the ultimate aim of the World Conservation Strategy.
33
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Ref erences
1- The Global 2000 Report to the President . Vol 1 . A Report
prepared by the Council on Environmental Quality and the Department of
State, Gerald V. Barney, Editor and Study Director (Washington, D.C.,
U.S. Government printing Office, 1980).
2- World Conservation Strategy- Prepared by the International Union
for Conservalon of Nature and Natural Resources (lUCN) with the
advice, cooperation and financial assistance of UNEP and WMF and In
collaboration with FAO and Unesco (Gland, Switzerland, 1980).
3- An Introrl uctlon to the World Conservation Strategy . Prepared for
the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resource*: (lUCN) by Its Commission of Education, text and selection of
photographs by Stan Croner (Gland, Switzerland, 1984).
4. Brandt Commission "Report, North South: A Program for Survival
(Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1980V
5. Unesco. Environmental Education 1n the Light of the Tbilisi
Conferen ce (Paris, 1980).
6. Fritjof Capra, The Turning Point (New York, Simon and Schuster,
1982).
T. Fritjof Capra and Charlene Spretnak, Green Politics (New
York, E.P. Dutton, 1984). ~
8. Theodore Roszak, Person/Planet (New York» Anchor Press,
Doubleday, 1979).
9. Albert v. Baez, "Curiosity, Creativity, Competence and
Compassion: Guidelines for Science Education 1n the Year 2000",
World Trends 1n Scien ce Education . Charles P. McFadden, Editor
(Halifax, Atlantic Institute of Education, 1980).
10. Jonathan Schell, The Fate of the Earth (New York, Alfred A.
Knopf. 1982).
11. Rodger w. Bybee, "Science Education and the Emerging Ecological
Society", Science Education (N'»w York), Vol 63, January 1979, p
95-109.
12. Albert v. Baez, Innovation In Science Education-Worldwide (Paris,
The Unesco Press, 1976).
13. Morris Berman, The Reenchantment of the World (New York, Bantam
Books. 1984).
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34
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14. J.E. Lovelock, 6AIA-A New Look at Life on Earth (Oxford, Oxford
University Press, 1982).
15. Donella H. Meadows, Dennis Meadows, Jorgen Randers, William W.
Behrens III, The Limits to Growth (Mew York, New America Library,
1972).
16. Aurello Peccel, 100 Pages for the Future (New York, Pergamon,
1981).
17. Erik P. Eckholm, Down to Earth (New York, U.W. Norton t Company,
1932).
18. Paul thrllch and Anne Ehrllch, Extinction (New York, Random
House, 1981).
I.E. Linke, Russell D., "The Challenge of Environmental Education In
Today's World." Director of Academic Planning, Tertiary
Education Authority of South Australia. 18 Oequettevllle
Terrace, Kent Town, South Australia 5067.
The challenge of environmental education Is In many respects the
challenge of life Itself, of survival and prosperity, of peace and
social equity. The fact that Its domain Is not constrained by any
boundaries of national Identity, physical, cultural or political,
makes each of these goals more complex In conception and Inordinately
more difficult to achieve. This Is not to suggest, however, that
environmental education has abandoned Its characteristic alms to
become absorbed within the whole dynamic morasv of human affairs, but
rather that the fundamental Issues which It seeks to address and the
goals to which It aspires are some of the most Important concerns In
the world today, and our success In achieving them will by definition
have a determining Influence on future patterns of world development
and on the quality of human life.
What then are these fundamental goals; how should we address
them; and what are the likely constraints In their achievement?
Firstly, t' reflect briefly on the general characteristics of
environmental education as proposed In 1972 by i'JCN^ and
subsequently developed and refined through the Belgrade Charter and
the Tbilisi Conference In the mld-and late-1970s respectively:
environmental education alms to develop. In Individuals and society as
a whole:
(a) an understanding of the complex and dynamic
interrelationship between ourselves and our total
environment;
(b) an appreciation of, concern for, and commitment to the wise
and Indefinitely sustainable use (conservation) of both
natural and modified resources; and
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(c) the ability and wmingness to participate with others In
solving environmental problems and thereby attennptlng to
Improve the quality of human life.
The emergence of the World Conservation Strategy In 1982 brought
us one step futher In attenptln^i to develop a functional as well as
Intuitively appealing philosophy of environmental education In
establishing that principles of conservation and development were not
necessarily Incompatible. Indeed It Is largely because of this
Strategy, and the many National statements and strategies currently
being prepared In response to It, and In other places the discussions
and debates surronding It, that one of the primary goals of
environmental education (which for want on a better term I shall call
Its "econoMic" goal, though It is really much more than that) can now
be expressed In both meaningful and practical terms: It Is to promote
and seek to Implement the concept of sustainable development; to
reconcile the fundamental alms of conservation and development In a
way which permits the utilization of natural resources within the
limits of their replacement potential and with explicit consideration
for their long term Impact on human society and on the world In which
we live. It Is In this respect to expand the tempore 1 perspective of
economic and technological development, but It Is not, and should not
be, to subsume the basic values of environmental conservation within a
more appealing and. In political terms at least, more "responsible"
development strategy. There Is a fundamental difference In priorities
between those who seek to conserve and those who seek to develop the
world's resources, and In the sacrificial cost that asch Is prepared
to bear In fulfilling their respective goals. 2 To reconcile these
different priorities Is to establish a functional balance between
them; a working compromise based on mutual understanding ar»d respect
but without any assumption on either part of unconditional surrender
or ultimate conversion of the other.
There Is a valuable lesson to be learned In this from the
principle of multicultural Ism which has achieved a new prominence, and
In many respects a new meaning, throughout miny countries of the world
In recent years. It Is presently defined In Australia (and presumably
ln compatible terms elsewhere) as the maintenance of culti^ral
divervity within a cohesive social framework. By the latter Is meant
a single broad legislative structure within which different groups.
self-Identified by race or religion, place of origin or any of a
variety of other characteristics, may coexist with equal rights of
access to all forms of social support and legislative control. This
at least Is the Ideal, and while In practice It may be undermined by
human Intolerance and by a variety of tensions and anxieties, both
chronic and sporadic. It still provides an essential and to a large
extent practicable model for social development. In the same way It
Is possible, I believe, to establish an effective working relationship
between thore whose values lean predominantly toward conservation and
those concerned mort for development without attempting to constrain
or to Ignore the Inevitable spectrum of Individual differences.
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3b
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This leads me to the second major goal of environmental education:
what 1 shall call its social goal. In brief it is to promote and seek
to establish patterns of behaviour which are consistent with the
concept of a world community within which is acknowledged a single
class of humanity, heterogenous in racial origin and cultural
affiliation bwt, within reasonable bounds, homogeneous in enjoying a
similar standard of living. It is this goal which presents by far the
greater potential conflict both in its interpretation and in its
achievement.
Let me first consider some of the basic problems of
interpretation. The term "community* normally implies a close
affiliation, or at least some form of shared identity, between Its
members, ^nd when we speak of particular sub-groups or factions within
a community we Imply that the differences which separate these groups
are in some sense subordinate to those shared characteristics which
define them as one community.^ In what sense, then, can we
seriously speak of a wr-ld community? At the global level we do not
share a common theolog lOr a common set of legal rights, nor a
common educational franiv^ork, nor a common, or even conq}arable, style
and quality of living, nor any of those things which we assume as
basic elements of both national and more specific community
identities, and to preserve which we are prepared to dedicate and If
necessary sacrifice our lives. We are, of course, all human in the
broadest biological sense, but If this Is to be our only criterion for
describing ourselves as members of a world community then we stretch
the term beyond the limits of Its normal meaning to the point of
blatant hypocrisy.
World consciousness does not necessarily imply a world community,
and the present Workshop theme "^tnink globally" which has underscored
much of the discussion at this conference is Just as prone to
concealing unmitigated self-interest as to reflecting any genuine
sense of international identity. What differentiates the two are the
motives we attach to consideration of global issues - the limits to
which we are prepared to accept responsibility for the well-being of
other people and to this end moderate our own behaviour and
ambitions. We cannot, I suggest, speak seriously and with conviction
about establishSig the concept of a world community without
acknowledging the need for personal compromise in the interest of
broader social equity.
Moreover, if we accept that the principle of social equity is
inherent in the meaning of world corrmunity, at least to the extent
that we assume in more specific uses of the term community, then we
need also to confront some further problems of Implementation.
Firstly, there are two characteristic emphases in environmental
education- the promotion of personal experience and Involvement In
local community issues (this is reflected in the second part of the
present conference Workshop theme, "act locally") which in their own
right could be argued to undermine the more fundamental aims of global
perspective and world identity in that they focus explicitly on
personal interests and concerns. Identification with other people.
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other counti^ies, and other cultures cannot be assumed as a natural
development while these remain largely unseen and, 1n the normal
educational process, largely alien. They must be taught, and
particularly where the focus is on personal experience they must be
related explicitly and contiguously to that experience if they are to
be effective.*
The second problem Is a rather more complex one and may indeed
present something of a paradox in attempting to resolve the two
fundamental goals of sustainable development and social equity
referred to above. If we assume, for example, that the object of
sustainable development can only be achieved through the development
of better (in the sense of more sophisticated and more efficient)
technology, and if it could be demonstrated convincingly that such
development were more likely to succeed in a soclo-economical ly
elitist rather than egalitarian society, then both goals would not be
jointly, or at least not concurrently, achievable. Of course the
assumption of technological advancement as a prerequisite for
sustainable development is itself a contentious issue and in practical
terms open to abuse, and the relationship between this and social
egalitarianism is as repugnantly false to some as it Is self-evident
to others. But it 1s at least conceivable that both aspects of the
argument have some foundation, and it is the way of human nature that
whatever foundation they have, as well as some they have not, will be
exploited by those with greater economic wealth and capacity for
self ^advancement as a basis for maintaining, rather than sharing, this
capacity.
It is not my intention here to propose an argument for social
revolution, nor to deny the many excellent and successful
environmental initiatives that have been taken by countries throughout
the world on behalf of others as well as themselves. But I do wish to
point out some inherent problems and potential contradictions in these
two fundamental goals of environmental education that will have to be
addri ssed in the coming years. How exactly they should be approached
and how successfully they can be achieved or reconciled will to a
large extent determine the Jhape of environmental education for the
immediate future, as well as its practical contribution to our
survival and to the development and continuity of human culture.
In concluding 1 should like to comment briefly on some of the
major themes and issues which have emerged throughout the present
conference and which have not already been addressed. Firstly, the
cormitment and enthusiasm of those involved in environmental education
at every level and in every sphere of educational influence, while
encouraging in itself, does not appear to have been matched with any
compardblc sense of urgency and enlightenment among those responsible
for funding and administering educational systems. It has been argued
several tiines at this conference that environmental education is not
so much a field of study as a way of life; a philosophy which
pervades, or ought to pervade, the entire education system. But if
this is so then the measure of its success is the extent to which it
does infuse, explicitly or otherwise, the whole educational process.
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both formal and Informal* In this we have achieved only limited
success; our philosophy Is generally tolerated and often formally
acknowledged by educational authorities, but seldom Is It promoted
beyond that level and very rarely Indeed as an essential curriculum
element. It Is true that we have made some valuable progress In this
area against formidable forces of apathy and Inertia and In
circumstances dominated by more Immediate problems of rising
unemployment and general economic uncertainty, but we have no cause
for complacency. The decision-makers have yet to be persuaded of the
fundamental Importance of environmental education, and we ourselves
have yet to reach consensus on how exactly this philosophy should be
Incorporated within the mainstream of educational thought and
practice. 5
The second major Issue Is that of evaluation and research, which
seems always to have had a disappointingly subordinate role in
envlro.imental education to that of curriculum development and to have
been characterised by the somewhat superficial and haphazard
techniques of afterthought rather than by any planned and, as far as
Is possible In research of this kind, controlled experimental design.
In an area of education uniquely defined by the attitudes, values and
personal behaviours which It seeks to develop, this Is a matter of
understandable but nonetheless serious neglect, for It opens a new and
largely uncharted field of educational knowledge which may well hold
the key to successful 1fq)lementat1on of environmental education
programmes but In which we have had so far to be guided simply by
personal experience. Intuition and prejudice.
For the first time at this conference there are signs of serious
and systematic attempts to bring together the disparate strands of
research on attltudlnal and behavioural change relating to
environmental education and to explore new paradigms aimed at
providing more substantial Insights Into this vexed and complex
field. Unfortunately, the type of answers we would like to f1nd--the
universal generalizations on human learning and behaviour- do not
exist; the number of different factors Involved and the complexity of
their Interactions do not permit such simple descriptive or empirical
models to be defined. But there are valuable elements of knowledge to
be gained from these approaches, albeit Incrementally, and 1f we are
evfer to understand In detail the process of environmental education
these research efforts must be encouraged to continue and to develop
further as the necessary methodological basis is established.
In many respects this conference has provided an extremely
valuable Insight Into the status and directions of environmental
education around the world, and In some respects, too, It clearly
represents the forefront of world understanding and philosophical
development In this field. Without In any sense detracting from the
conference environment- a setting of almost unparalleled beauty which
cannot fall to arouse In each of us a feeling of exhilaration and
wonder-^what remains from the conference to disseminate to others, to
guide and promote the further development of environmental education,
to encourage those already committed to the field and to persuade
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33
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those who are not, are the Insights, understandings and supportive
affiliations which have tsen established here. In every respect It
has been a bounteous hirvest of experience, ai d one which we now have
an obligation to share with others throughout the world.
NOTES
1
Earlier definitions had also been proposed by various Individuals
and organizations, the most notable being that endorsed In the
U.S. Environmental education Act of 1970 (subsequently repealed In
1980); but the lUCN aeflnltlon was probably the first to provide
both a detailed and comprehensive statement of the brfsic and
essential characteristics.
It Is Interesting to note here the definition proposed by William
Saflrc of an "environmentalist" as "an antl-pollutlonary; one who
puts the values of tlie preservation of the earth and Its
atmosphere ahead of tconomic development." ( Saflre's Political
Dict ionary . Random House; Mew York, N.Y., 1978, p. 204). While
any such dichotomy Is bound to be simplistic this does provide a
reasonable Indication of relative priorities In the spectrum of
conservation and development values.
We sometimes speak also of a community within a community, for
example of native. Aboriginal, or particular immigrant communities
wUhIn a broader Nation or State, but when we speak of such
specific groups as members of the larger community we tend also to
subordinate their differentiating characteristics to those shared
by all members of the larger group.
Similar difficulties In Identification have been found, for
example, In attempting to establish or discern positive attitudes
toward conservation or wilderness areas among students living 1n
metropolitan areas who have never experienced such an environment,
or to the protection of wildlife species which they have never
seen.
The widespread support already shown at this Conference for the
development of some form of World Environmental Education Strategy
appears to reflect, at least ln part, the need for a more unified
International approach to environmental education and to Its
principal concerns and possible Implementation strategies.
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'](}
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l.K Sacks. krt>w B., "NAEE President's Address", President of NAEE.
Acting Director, Institute for Environmental Studies, University
of WUconsln-Nadlson, 1007 UARF Building, Nadlson, WI 53705.
Comrades et amis, Pour nous, ^association d*oducat1on envlron^nale
de TAmeMque Nord, c'etalt un grand plalsir d'avoir notre premiere
conference lc1 a Lac Louise; de recevoir Vhospltallte tres gentllle
de la province d 'Alberta et du governement du Canada; et de disceter
nos interets partages au sujet de Teducatlon envlronnale.
Colleagues and friends. It has been a great pleasure to hold our
first conference as the North American Association for Environmental
Education here at Lake Louise, to receive the splendid hos;nal1ty of
the province of Alberta and the fiovernment of Canada, and to pursue
our common Interests In environmental education.
As my attempt at fuAch Indicates, changing the nariie of this
association from one based on notions of political sovereignty to one
based upon regional and geographic environmental realities Is more
than a matter of nomenclature. And It means more than simply holding
our annual conference In Canada, or Hexico, or other parts of Worth
America on a prescribed basis. It also means that we must recognize
the growing diversity of our growing membershliV the language
differences, the cultural differences, the political differences, and
the broad range of new needs and requirements ^jhese differences
reflect. The North American Association for Environmental Education
will attempt to respond to these differences by Incorporating greater
participation by Canadians and others In North America In NAEE's
governing structure. And we 11 establish a special committee to
examine the totality of the 1r4)licat1ons of changing our name. This
special committee will be asked to offer recommendations for changes
In NAEE policy, procedures, and structure that may be needed. Our
commitment to these goals 1s real.
The new venture we have embarked upon here In Lake Louise,
however, emphasizes commonalities as well as differences- our shared
Interdisciplinary mode of Intellectual Inquiry; our shared concern for
the fate of our only one eartt; our shared pedagogical perspective;
and, as both the Honorable F.O. Bradley and the Honorable John Frazer
so eloquently stater^, our shared need to approach environmental
problems that are transnatlor.al and global In orientation as they are
local.
We In the various nations of the region have imjch to learn from
each other as we continue to develop rational and meaningful responses
to the vast complexity of problems, questions, and Issues facing our
environment. We have much to learn from each other as we meet our
responsibilities as environmental <^ducators to educate the general
public; to educate environmental managers; and to educate and continue
to educate ourselves—the present and future environmental education
community.
Tfe new direction of NAEE reflects the awareness by environmental
educators that perhaps we have focused too narrowly upon our own
backy<irds, our local problems of pollution and resource depletion.
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resource consumption and the broad array of factors that Influence
human activity at local levels. The local perspective Is critical. It
U trUlcal for citizen Involvement, It Is critical for
problem-solving, and It Is critical because Individuals can most
forcefully affect change at local levels. But, we must also Instill
In our multiple audiences the certainty that as Individuals, as
consumers, and as waste producers, we are also global citizens, and
what we do as Individuals in local communities Is part of a larger
picture— that the Individual decisions we make, those our communities
make, those our governments make, are not merely discrete acts without
connections to other discrete acts in cowmunltles. In nations, 1r,
large geographic regions, and In our world. Unless we can provide
this sense of connection In space and time, over the long haul, we
will not have completed our objectives or met our responsibilities as
enviroriffluntal educators.
And we muSt be able to provide this sense with a surety and an
Intellectual rigor in our substance, our content— platitudes are
Inadequate for educators. Rigor requires that as educators we roust
remain current— remain active In our fields and our
professlon--contr1but1ng new Ideas and perspectives based upon our
experience, our thought, and our research. The requlreflients of our
Jobs and our personal lives In a w( Id so often filled with doubt,
uncertainty, and overwhelming complexity. Is often an Intimidating
reality. Opportunities to come together to explore new Ideas and
approaches, opportunities like those afforded by our annual conference
help us to keep current and sharp--and contacts with our peers and our
friends resuscitate us so we can continue our efforts when the
conference ends and we return to real life. We need our peers to
evaluate our thinking critically— to assess, 1n essence, whether we
are hdndwaving, whether we are mouthing empty phrases, or whether. In
fact, we know what we are talking about, what we are, and what we
expect to be as professionals.
This partJcular conference has made this clear. It las renewed us,
helped us set new directions. It has also shown us that professional
standards are required of professionals. The success of this
conference has been due to the trer 'ndous personal effort of Bill
S<-app and tne team he put together, especially Dorothy Cox, Martha
Monroe, Joy Finlay, Susie Washington, Glovanna Olchiro, Jerry
Ber beret, Joan Helaelberg, and niany others In support groups fi
across Canada and the United States.
Join me In applauding their foresight and their 36 months of
planning and en-^rgy. And Join me in thanking the province of Alberta
and the Government of Canada In their tremendous support and
cooperation to make this first International NAti Conference a
memorable one.
This conference Is a culmination, and NAEE has come a long way
Ince Its first cor.ference in 1972. We have iflore definition \*Mh e
learly articulated mission statement. We hav a structure which
equitably Incorporates and fosters the Interests of our diverse
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metnbershlp. We have expanded that meti*ersh1p and services to them.
And we have recognized our fesponslblllty as a professional society
within an International and global context.
It Is a good beginning, but It Is only a beginning. As an
Association we must continue with energy and vigor to further build
NAEE membership and membership services, to continue to develop a
coherent and substantive program for our members based upon their
Interests, needs and concerns. We will attempt to do Just this In tf.e
year ahead. We want to hear from you— we want to Invite your
participation, your Ideas, and your suggestions.
But we must do more than build our own organization. We must
further the field of environmental education, sharpen Its goals, offer
leadership In developing ideas. In getting beyond the obvious. In
deepening our understanding and conveying the best Information
currently available to our publics. This requires professional
commltraent and Imagination. The talent and energy Is here within
NAEE. We win seek to tap It rapaciously. Ue need your help.
Next year, our conference will take place 28 September-4 October
in Washington. O.C. We hope many of you will be able to be there. At
that time perhaps my French will have Improved and I win have had
reason to learn Spanish as wen. Thank you.
43
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II. THE BANFF DECLARATION
In October. 1984, The North American Associ;»t1on for Environmental
Education convened an International meeting on environmental education
In Banff, Alberta, Canada, attended by representatives from 28
nations, Including several from the developing world. The Conference
was international not only In Its participants, but also In the global
nature of Its concerns .
Twelve years after the United Nations Conrerence on the Human
Environment held In Stockholm In 1972, It Is evident that the overall
quality of life for vast numbers of people Is now worse than It was,
and that the state of the global environment continues to deteriorate.
Therefore, we, as environmental educators, affirm that the current
educational approaches and the back-to-basics movement In education
will fall to meet the needs of hiimanlty unless we begin at once to
address the serious environmental concerns that presently face every
member of the world community. The new basic education must endow
learners with environmental competencies that will enable tha. to
contribute to the resolution of local and global problems and 5 the
development of n ecologically sustainable society. Such competenrles
will need to be supported by a new environmental ethic vhat embraces
the whole of the natural order with which human societies must live In
harmony for survival. This moveiuent mu5t achieve no less than an
Infusion of the new environmental ethic Into every aspect of the
educational process.
In light of this, we, th^ participants cf the Banff Conference,
call for an unprecedented effort to educators throughout the world to
restructure their entire educational programs , to meet effectively the
urgent needs of humanity and of the plsnet.
Approved October 8, 1984, by participants at the annual Conference
of the North American Association for Environmental Education, lake
Louise, Canada.
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44
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III. Berberet, William 6., "Environmental Education for the Biosphere
Workshops on Ecologically Sustainable Developmentj^." Sean*
College of Liberal Arts, Willamette University, Salem, Oregon
97301. USA, and Sacks, Arthur B., Acting Director, Institute for
Envlroraiental Studies, University of W1scons1n-Nad1soi, 1007
WARF Building, Nadlson, WI 53705.
Environmental educators and scholars, and a scattering of other
environmental professionals and students frofi ter countries and five
continents participated In a workshop to evaluate educational
strategies for ecologically sustainable development. The workshop
Involved Intensive small group assessment of ideological and cultural
Imperatives which contribute to patterns of environmental exploitation
as an economic resource. Insights gained from the analysis of
economic, political, social, and ecological factors In development
formed the content for educational approaches and methods the workshop
generated to Improve the ability of botti formal an citizen education
to respond to crucial Issues of biosphere survival.
Sponsored by the Environmental Studies, Education and
Non-Formal Education Sections of the Morth American Association for
Environmental Education (NAEE), the workshop Inaugurated the annual
Conference of NAEE which met for the first time In Canada. The
purpose and structure of the workshop was modeled after the
International Workshop on Development and Biosphere Stability, held In
New Delhi, India, June 1-5, 1984. The one*-hundred participants from
ten nations at the workshop In India foc:!sed upon patterns and Impacts
of development In the developing Third World; the Lake Louise
gathering emphasized the economic development-environmental protection
Interface In the more highly Industrialized North American context.
Both workshops related their respective regional analyses to the
blogeochemlcal being of the biosphere as a whole and the notion
of protecting habitats as physical, biological, and cultural
ecosystems.
The New Delhi workshop, cosponsored by the Indian Environmental
Society, the India Department of the Environment, India Ministry of
Education, the World Council for the Biosphere, and the International
Society for Environmental Education, concluded that problems of
rieforestatlon, desertification, soil erosion, and sallnlzatlon of
soils are environmental problems first and foremost because they
threaten the ability of developing countries to feed themselves.
Facing high rates of population growth and low per capita Income,
Third World nations place higher priority upon economic development
than environmental quality. Alarmed by the Increasing magnitude of
environmental problems, however, especially those caused by population
pressures, concern Is growing that effective environmental management
must accompany economic advances.
In addition to the recognition that steps are necessary to
maintain the very existence of the environment as an economic
resource, the New Delhi discussions revealed anxiety about the Impact
of economic development upon traditional cultural values and mores.
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Some saw the environmental movement as a way to shore up cherished
elements of culture which transcend material aspects of human well
being. The call was heard that developing countries should
"re1ndustr1a11ze" and **remod«^rn1ze** In ways that avoid the disruption
of values, family structure, and comunlty which have accompanied
Irdustrlallzatlon In the West. Maintenance of cultural diversity was
seen as comp<;rable in Importafice to the notion of ecological
diversity. Preservation of traditional cultures which have sustained
cnv1rc;;n:c;;ts for esinc::l£ and values w^l1c^i stress cofiSefvation and a
land ethic were especially emphasized.
Environmental education was seen as a vehicle to promote a balance
whereby standards of living could be upgraded In a way compatible with
Imperatives of environment and culture. Workshop participants
recommended establishment of a national environmental education center
In India to provide research, teacher training, and iJIrectlon to the
Indian EE movement. Educational efforts were seen as especially
needed to reach Into rural areas and to Influence decisionmakers In
government, business, and Industry. In order to have biosphere-wide
impact the workshop recommended that a global environmental education
network be established to foster research, share Information, and
Improve communications on environmental matters.
The theme of the Lake Louise Workshop, "Education for the
Biosphere: Thinking Globally, Acting Locally,* Invited participants
to devise educational strategies that would move environmental
' ' Ion beyond the classroom to the large community. In fact, the
op Inspired an activist mood which carried over In the NAEE
conference and resulted In approval of the so--ca1l€J "Banff
Declaration/ a call for a renewed envlrormental education movement on
a global scale due to the decline In quality of life "for vast numbers
of people" and continued deterioration of the global environment since
the UN Stockholm Conference In 1972. The Banff Declaration noted that
environmental education must be Inserted at the center of the
so-called "Back to Basics" movement In education In order to "endow
learners with environmental competencies that will enable them to
contribute to the resolution of local and global problems and to the
development of an ecologically sustainable society." Further, the
Declaration proposed the evolution of a new environmental ethic
embracing "the whole of the natural order" and "every aspect" of
education.
Workshop participants adopted a series of recommendations to
address resolution of local to global environmental problems more
effectively. Specifically, the group recommended development of a
"Global Environmental Education Strategy" and establishment of a
"World Environmental Education Fund" to support realization of the new
environmental ethic also called for In the Banff Declaration. The
workshop also urged creation of a global environmental Information
network and widespread dissemination of advanced Information
technology. Finally, the workshop urged Increased efforts to develop
environmental education programs In the major sectors of society
beyond the schools.
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Although the New Delhi and Lake Louise workshops were structured
similarly, differences In setting and backgrounds of participants
presaged several contrasting outcomes. The Lake Louise workshop
attempted to use the setting of Banff National Park as a case study of
a conscious attempt to limit development in systeicatlcany planned
ways. Although the Uke Louise gathering took pains to consider
development regionally and globally as well, the context of this
workshop contrasted starkly with New Delhi's urban setting and the
pressures upon the land everywhere In evidence In India.
Contextually, the two workshops represented almost the extremes of
priority upon econonmic development and anvlronmental preservation
which exist within the global environmental education conmunlty.
The professional backgrounds of participants In each workshop
varied significantly, even though ten nations and several continents
were represented In each. Most of the New Delhi participants were
research scientists and social scientists or environmental officials
from India. They tended to analyze ecological and cultural
Imperatives In detail and were largely Inexperienced In developing
effective educational strategies to coimunlcate this knowledge In
classroom and community. The Banff group, on the other hand, largely
consisted of professional environmental educators from the highly
developed West, notably Canada, Australia and the United States. The
Lake Louise participants had mixed success In evaluating and relating
ecological and cultural Imperatives In depth, but were systematic and
comprehensive In articulating the "Global Environmental Education
Strategy."
Keynote speakers reviewed the New Delhi Wo'^kshop, described the
Banff and other par', planning and management processes, and Introduced
discussions of ecological, cultural and educational Imperatives.
Workshop Co-Director, Arthur Sacks, NAEE President-elect, outlined
major conclusions and recommendations of the New Delhi gathering.
Sacks' remarks underscored the critical contributions of the
humanities to environmental education In providing analysis and
Interpretation of the culture-environment relationship. Alan Schwartz
of St. Lawrence University presented a case study ot the planning and
execution of the 1980 Winter Olympics at Lake Placid, an elaborate
development undertaking In the midst of northern New York's Adirondack
Park. This project, relevant to the Workshop because of the proximity
of the 1988 Olympics to Banff Park, Illustrated ways In which
environmental and economic Interests can be served through a
systematic management process.
Valerius Gelst of the University of Calgary, John Baldwin of the
University of Oregon, and William Stapp, NAEE President, from the
University of Michigan, delivered keynote addresses prior to the small
group sessions on ecological, cultural, and educational Imperatives,
respectively. In sustaining development. Gelst emphasized the
necessity to maintain the regenerative and, therefore, productive
capacity of soils, to preserve protect' d natural areas as the "seed
stock" for ecological recovery of damaged lands, and to control toxic
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pollutlon of food chains^ a hazard «4t1ch may be reaching crisis
proportions In some of the most highly Industrialized parts of the
world.
Baldwin stressed lifestyle Implications of the emerging poit
Industrial society In the West. Citing such works as Nalsbltt^s
Hegatrends and Toffler's The Third Wave , he suggested that the arrival
of the "Information Age" raises possibilities of reduced energy
consumption, resource utilization, and pollution output per unit of
production as the "smokestack" Industries are replaced with computers
and robotics. At the same time, decentralizing tendencies
accompanying this "Information revolution" may create new
environmental problems as populations move away from urban areac ^o
settle In and around high quality, often unprotected, natural areas.
Stapp outlined a comprehensive and systematic strategy for
environmental education, truly a systems approach which would enable
the educational process to mirror Interdependent, Interacting
characteristics of the human ecosystem. His analysis related the
formal and nonformal dimensions of education, the public and private
sectors of society, the producer and consumer elements of the economy,
the decisionmakers and general citizenry of the state, the rural and
urban portions of the landscape, and the natural and built
environments. Stapp enq)has1zed the roles of holistic thinking,
effective communication and Individual empowerment as necessary
techniques to provide environmental education with the organization
and momentum to grow In Influence.
For the more than one-^hundred participants, the highlight of the
workshop was the brainstorming process on the Imperatives In nine
small groups, each mirroring the International, gender and
professional characteristics of the workshop as a whole. General
reporting sessions captured some of the richness of tiie small group
sessions, but were unable to communicate effectively the subtle
elements of discourse and the Intense fellowship which occurred.
Although few new Insights about ecological and cultural Imperatives
emerged, the focus and content of conclusions and recommendations
regarding environmental education were gratifying, especially In the
Integration of ecology and culture In the educational strategy.
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IV. A. Allen, Irma A., "Environmental Education: Impact on Three
Aspects of Development In Africa," P.O. Box 135, Mbabane,
Swaziland.
Developing countries In Africa are exciting, dynamic places, with
great diversity yet sharing certain aspirations. Among these Is a
strong desire to establish an Individual Identity, to provide basic
education and primary health care for all, to 1nv>rove the general
quality of ll^e, to become self^suff Iclent In food production, and tc
develop a thriving economic Infrastructure.
At the same time, there are some common constraints to development
shared by most developing countries. One of the greatest Is the very
high population growth rate. On an average, the population In Africa
Is expected to double between 1980 and 2000. This type of rapid
population growth places great pressure on resources, such as land,
water, forests. Another constraint Is that most of the developing
countries are still burdened with vestiges of what may be referred to
as "colonialism." For example, systems such as those of
administration and education were established under colonial rule, and
these have now become the habitual systems, but do not necessarily
best meet country needs. Lack of trained manpower Is another serious
problem which hampers development.
In efforts being made to eliminate or reduce the effects of these
constraints, I have observed certain areas where environmental
education Is making a great and significant Intact. I will share some
of these with you by referring to three conv>letely different
environmental education projects in three different developing
countries In Africa.
Environmental Education for Survival
For the RendiUe people In northern Kenya, environmental education
may be a question of life and death.
For centuries, the nomadic Rendille people had been subsisting
entirely off their herds of camels and goats, ^f^DvIng over large areas
In search of forage and water. When bad droughts occurred, livestock
died in large numbers. Those that survived werft U5;ually shared.
Nevertheless, some people starved, too. It was a life of great
hardship, but still the people adapted and lived In balance with their
ecosystem. However, 1n recent times, development has resulted in the
Introduction of things such as a few permanent boreholes, some
schools, clinics, and even famine relief. Ironically, this
development has had harmful effects. It has caused people to become
Increasingly sedentarlzed, resulting In ever growing circles of
overgrazed, denuded land around their "manyattas" (camps). The
fragile ecosystem cannot support their altered lifestyle, and the
Rendille's existence Is threatened by desertification.
Since 1976, UNESCO has been carrying out one of Its major Han and
the Biosphere (MAB) projects, associated with desert encroachment and
ecological degradation of arid lands, in a 23,000 sq. km. study area
43
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1n northern Kenya occupied primarily by the Rendllle. A team of
scientists has been conducting ecological research on the rangeland,
woodland, livestock human migrations water resources, climate, etc.,
and building up an excellent picture of the environment, its problems,
and possible solutions. Land use and livestock irjnagement plans for
the area were developtid. At that point, ther, the challenge was how
to reach and motivate the pastoral Is t% to adopt a modification of
their practices.
A pilot project was designed to test the efficacy of radio as a
suitable medium to communicate with pastoral Ists, and to see whether a
specially designed series of radio programs could be used for
environmental education purposes.
Radios were placed In twenty manyattas (;irwiad1c camps), and field
assistants were trained to operate the radios, lead discussions after
each program, and fill In evaluation sheets.
The radio programs were dt:veloped and broadcast for a period of
six months. Thi topics chosen were based on the Rendl lie's main
concerns: camels, trees, water, goats, security, etc. Each program
would begin with a local person voicing a particular concern or
question. This was then linked to IPAL's research, to make the point
that the research was aimed at helping to solve the people's
problems. Practical results of the research on that topic were then
disseminated.
Although the logistical constraints were tremendous, the pilot
project was a big success. A pre-radio program survey and a
post-radio program survey were conducted, and the findings showed
marked gains In desired knowledge and attitudes
Environmental Education for Relevance of Formal Education
In Zimbabwe, since 1979, all primary schools offer an
Environmental Science and Agriculture Course In Grades 1-7. This Is
the result of an Environmental Education Research Curriculum
Development Project.
The Project began with a needs assessment study. Education
officers. Inspectors, headmasters, teachers, parents and resource
people all made valuable Inputs to the content and structure of the
new course. In an Initial questlonaire, the respondents were asked to
describe one concept or main Idea they would like to Include In a
course of environmental studies and why. The responses were
tremendous. Here Is an example: "Children should be taught about the
Importance of trees, and how to plant them." Why? "Because In our
area, we are very short of trees, and people have to walk far for
firewood."
After the curriculum was developed, teachers assisted with field
testing and with determining the most appropriate level for various
activities. The end result of this cooperative effort was an
Integrated program with prov'.-lon for the development of capabilities
to enable primary school children to be aware of and concerned about
their environment, and to Interact effectively and to mutual benefit
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w1th 1t. This curriculum takes Into consideration factors such as
Individual needs, national needs, teachers' capabilities, the nature
of primary education In the country, available facilities and other
resources. It Is relevant and meaningful.
Environmental Education for Cultural Integration
With development, come many new and sometimes foreign Ideas,
opportunities, responsibilities and expectations. Every developing
country faces the challenge of reconciling traditional beliefs and
practices with these "modern* Ideologies.
In Swaziland, an Interesting applied research project Is taking
place. It Is aimed at bridging the gap between the powerful group of
traditional healers and the modern doctors and health workers.
During the last few years, the Ministry of Health, with financial
support from the Agency for International Development (USAID), has
been building up an Information base through research Into traditional
and modern health care. Green and Nakhubu (1984) have specifically
Investigated the possibility of cooperation between the traditional
and modern health sectors.
The picture which has emerged from this research shows that there
appears to be some very sound reasons why action should be taken
towards Improved cooperation.
1. Roughly BS% of the population consults traditional healers at
one time or another;
2. There are roughly over 5,000 traditional healers (tinyanga)
operating very lucrative practices. This constitutes a
healer/population ratio of 1:110 as compared to a medical
doctor/population ratio of 1:10,000;
3. Traditional healers are Interested In cooperation with the
modern health sector. In training 1n modern health care
techniques, and In a Healer's Association which has government
support;
4. There are areas of traditional medicine where a common ground
for cooperation exists, and there are some traditional practices
which are harmful, and where some form of Intervention Is needed;
5. There are certain "modern" Illnesses (e.g.. Cholera) which the
traditional healers feel they cannot treat; and
6. In order to provide basic health care for all the population
by the year 2000, all available manpower must be harnessed to
achieve this goal.
After some exploratory meetings, a pilot project to exchange views
and to train healers was approved^ Its purpose was to demonstrate
that the training of traditional healers should Increase cooperation
between the traditional and modern health <;6Ctors and Improve the
treatment and prevention of diseases common In children.
The first pilot workshop was held In June, 1984, and attended by 5
clinic nurses, 25 traditional healers, and some outside observers.
Concrete recommendations were made, and training took place.
5J
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Slnce that Initial workshop, district workshops have been held,
with participation from healers who attended the first workshop* It
Is estimated that about 4,000 healers have Joined the Healers
Association, and that 2/3 of the healers from the first workshop have
built, or are In the process of building, latrines at their
homesteads.
Some of the hoped for goals are:
1. Standardizing of remedies and treatments.
2. Minimizing harmful practices through education*
3. Cooperation In promoting prevention of disease through basic
sanitation, hygiene, nutrition education*
4. Self monitoring by healers to discourage unsaft; practices.
If these goals are achieved, the Impact on the Improvement of
health conditions, especially In the rural areas, will be great.
Although these 3 case studies are quite different, the one thing
1n common Is that at the heart of each. Is an environmental problem.
It ;$ becoming Increasingly clear that the greatest problems facing
developing countries In Africa today, are environmental ones, e*g*,
overpopulation, deforestation, desertification* Also, these problems
^^ave arisen In fairly recent times, and are largely due to man's
Inability to keep pace with chanies and to maintain a balance of
resources. Thus, It Is through er vironmental education. In Its
broadest sense, then, that man. In developing Africa, will acquire the
knowledge, skills, and *»tt1tudes to make wise choices and forge ahead
In well-planned development.
51
Allen, Irma A. "The Development of an Env1ronme..cal Science Course for
Primary Schools, Grades 1-7, In Zimbabwe Rhodesia." Tucson,
Arizona: Unpublished PH.D. dissertation. University of Arizona,
1980.
Allen, Irma A. Report of a Consultancy In Education and Training . IPAL
Technical Report F-1, UNESCO, Nairobi, 1981.
Green, Edward C. and Lydia Makhubu. "Traditional Healers In
Swaziland: Toward Improved Cooperation Between the Traditional
and Modern Health Sectors." Research Report, Ministry of Health,
Mbabane, Swaziland, 1984.
IV. B. Atachia, Michael. "Environmental Education In Afrlca-a Review."
Mauritius Institute of Education, Redult, HaLrltlus.
A Preamble on the Colonial Era
Environmental Education In the African context cannot be seen
separately from the process of development.
The colonial era had In many not so superficial ways,
de-developed the continent through the colonial emphasis on cash crop
cultivation, on service to a distant metropolis, on
"deculturallzatlon", and reorganisation of peoples, communities and
frontiers on a 'non ecological basis'.
The colonial era was marked by a serious non-recogn1t;on of some
of the values we today recognize as being essential to Environmental
Education namely: balance between population and resources;
conservation of soil; and self-sufficiency, both In terms of physical
resources and soclo-culturally.
The colonial era came to an official close round and about twenty
years ago, with variable degrees of perslstance (Zimbabwe's
independance, one will recall was In 1982). Africa has now come to
terms with the conservation y/s development Issue. The terms of this
truce may be found In the statement of World Environment Day:
"Development without Destruction."
The Meaning of Development
"A process called development has become the Ideal goal of all
nations on this planet" (UHEP, 1979).
The author has had numerous occasions to ask and hear (or be
t-old) the meaning attached to this concept in various African
countries or Instances. There Is no unanimity In that this
development must be done without destructing physical Africa, cultural
Africa and human Africa. This may prove quite Impossible In practice
1f some of the conceptualisations of development heard and recorded
were to be adhered to.
Clearing up the meanings attached to development Is thus a
priority task of environmental education In Africa.
The following questions way now be asked to broaden the debate.
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. How do small isolated coniminities share this notion of
development? If so, in what way?
. Is it fair to differentiate that aim of biology education which
is community (i.e. human) development, from the comparable aim of
physics, mathematics and engineering education which, it is
assumed, serves industrial and technological development?
. How does a community develop from what some of Us individual
members learn? (E. Rugumayo, 1978)*
. What are the existing (desirable) inter-relationships between
the various agents of development?
. What does development mean to you: more cars? more houses? more
buildings? more people? more money? more leisure time? longer
life?
. Does development mean increase in 6NP? Modernisation?
. Do you share the view (Atchia 1979) that development is a
process of stabilisation leading to sustained equilibrium rather
than growth?
Environmental Education as the development of positive environmental
attitude
How is attitude change to be achieved? Stuoies by Perkes (USA,
1973), Eyers (Australia, 1975), Richmond and Morgan (USA, UK, 1977)
and Atchia (Africa 1978) have come to some very definite conclusions
regarding the relationship between environmental knowledge and
attitudes. These environmental conclusions, given below, could well
be a suitable guide to how environmental education must be tackled:
1) a very strong relationship has been found to exist between
conceptual knowledge and attitude, 2) only a very weak relationship
has been found bet%^en factual knowledge and attitude . However,
programmes of environmental education, aimed by definition, at
development of positive environmental attitudes must be based on
concepts not factual information. Furthermore the traditional
attitudes to nature must be taken Into consideration on the African
(or Asian) context wh^^re a lot of already very positive environmental
attitudes exist.
Sources for E nvironmental Education
The question of the sources of environmental knowledge was first
stt^Jied in detail by Eyers. Several studies have since been conducted
on the subject in North America and Europe. In these continents,
formal schooling is thought to contribute 40X or less to the
environmental education of students while 60X of the environmental
knowledge and attitudes held comes from reading, talking, radio and TV.
In modern African cities, 50% to 80X of environmental knowledge
could come through formal schooling: however, in rural areas,
especially where there is little formal education beyond the primary
level, close to lOOX of environmental knowledge and practically all
the environmental attitudes come from the community. Attitudes to the
54
S3
environment In rural areas c<«e froM first-* and experience of the
environmental behaviour of teachers, elders and others In the
connunlty. The study of such traditional cultu.es and the
environmental and scientific knowledge they possess and utilize seems
to the author to be essential to the future of environmental education
In Africa and elsewhere.
As far as formal schooling Is concerned. Roth In the U.S.A.,
Concepclon-ltedel In the Phlllpi^jnes, and Atcnla In Africa have
ecently worked out the details of which concepts are essential for
environmental education. These concepts fall under several main
headings. Indicated below In outline only: 1) Humn ecology and
population dynamics ?) Natural reso;:rces and resources management 3)
Conservation and development 4) Technology, pollution and pollution
control 5) E v1ronmeir««^ health 6) Ba5<-, ecological relationships
7) Social, political and economic influences on the bio-physlca-soclal
environment 8) Town and cou^ttry planning; land use. These major
headings can be utilised to construct an "Environmental Studies"
curriculum, provided local Illustrative examples are built-in.
Catalogue of environmental problems In Africa
1) Resource deterioration: e.g. soil erosion, saTilzatlon.
desertification. Improver Ishment of the genetic resource base;
redHftlon of good quality water reiources through pollution,
exhaustion of mineral and other resources.
2) Disturbance of natural biological equilibrium.
3) Chemical pollution of the envlroiimont.
4) Physical disruption caused by man's activities.
5) Social disruption caused by the erosion of trrdltlonal culture
and settlement patterns through colonization and westernization. Of
Pc.tlcular importance has been the partial loss of the nigh degree of
social organization and community feelings that has always
charactfrized traditional African societies.
The African .-. hool as information centre o.\ environmental problems
Dr Magnus A. v. Cole, Njala University College, university of
Serra-Leune writes that, traditionally, the school has heen at the
receiving end of support emanating from the central government, tne
local government or the community which it serves. The school in this
setting makes use of *iformatic.i derived extra-territorial ly jnd at
best, derived nationally and frum the immediate society for
Instructional purposes in the education of the child.
Recent efforts in educational development encourage the Inquiry
approach at primary, secondary and college level. With this approach
to learning, the learner becomes involved in finding out knowledge,
Jeveloping intellectual and psychomotor skills, while at the same tine
acquires posUive attitudes towards, problem- recognition and
problem-solving. Such activitias as mentioned generate usef 1
Information, which in the area of science teaching, would not have
S4
hsen avall^' e otherwise, since ^ ^Ulonal science teaching had been
concerned more with transmUsIc • facts than with developing of
appropriate skills and attitude^.
Surveys of Indigenous technology has revealed that • large nuri)ar
of rural technologies conmoiily operated by men, women or children can
be successfully Integrated Into the curriculum. Through this process,
children learn useful dally life skills but also with the help of
teachers and other adults develop new Ideas and new skills.
Integrating Environmental Education Intc curr i cula
On the African scene, as elsewhere In t^e world, Envlronmentav
Education Is perceived as a dimension to <f Isclpllnes, not as a
discipline. The following trades and crafts have been Indentured at
the outskirts of Riany towns; ways and means are necessary to Integrate
an environmental culture Into them.
List of trades and crafts;
Pan^l beat\ng
Automechanlcs (bush)
Electrical Fitting a;id Repairs
Heavy Equipment Repair
Printing
Small scale Agriculture
Clerk, Typist, Accountant
Manufacture of traditional
crafts
Automechanlcs (garage)
Carpentry and Joinery
Motor car electricity
Machinist
Fitter
Sign writing
Radio and T.V. Repair
Bricklaying
Office Machine Malntence
and repair
Plumbing
Refrigeration
Cutting and Ta^.orlng
Proctography
Agricultural Implements
Mechanic
Seller of traditional crafts
Research seems necessary to Jetermlne the best ways of effecting
the Integration of EE Into these trades and crafts and, furthermore,
looking Into the Integration of these trades and crafts Into comr^unlty
development. A ^ook at the formal curricula themselves to see to what
extent Improved general education will have an Impact on the various
piecemeal efforts, local or International, to Improve quality of life.
Finally a strong recommendation must be made here to reach and
educate decision makers In Africa (both polltlcans and professionals)
about Environment and decision-making - or put In other words, to
In^^oduce ecology Into the act of government.
Bibliography
K Atchia, M. "Concepts and Dynamics of Envlrofiiiietntal Education
with Particular Reference to Britain, Africa ajo Mauritius
Ph.D. thesis, Salfortl, 1978,
2. Atchia, M. (ed.) "Environmental Education In t^e AfrWan School
Curriculum." African CiTrlculum nisatlon, Ibadan, 1982.
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3. Cole, M.3.A. and Hamnton, O.B., "Indigenous Technology 1n Sierra
Leone." Ministry of Social Welfare and Rural Oevelopraent, 1969.
4. Eyers, v.C. "Environmental Knowledge and Beliefs Among Grade 10
Students In Australia." Ph.D. dissertation, Oregon State
University.
5. lUCN Commission of Education. International Working Meeting on
Environmental Education In the School Curriculum. Paris:
UNESCO, 1970
6. KnarallUr, G.W. "School-based Environmental Monitoring In
Developing Countries." University of Leeds, 1979.
7. Perkes, A.C. "A survey of Environmental Knowledge and Attitudes
of Tenth and Twelfth Grade Students." Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio
State University, 1973.
8. Richmond, 3.M. "A survey of the Environmental Knowledge and
Attitudes of Fifth Year Pupils In England." Doctoral thesis,
Ohio State University, 1976.
9. Roth, R.E. Fundamental Concepts for Environmental Management
Education, K-16. Doctoral dissertation. University of Wisconsin.
1969.
IV. C. Crespo Gualda, Reglna Elena. "Environmental Education and
Latin America." Secretaria Especial Do Melo Arablente, Minlsterlo
Do Interior, Brasll.
Since the 1972 Stockholm Conference on Human Environment, and the
publicity given to the several studlas on economic growth.
Institutions oriented to the preservation and Improvement of the
environment were created In almost all Latin American countries
Following this same tendency, the term "Environmental Educatlor/
became popular, meaning the set of Initiatives oriented towards
modifying the behavior of the people of those cou'^trles In relation to
the environment, as a means of preserving the natural heritage and as
a guarantee of nondlscnntlnulty of the national dev^,.opme^t process.
Of course, the maintenance of ecological processes and the vital
systems 1s uot a postponable huma-i task, but we have to agree that,
while an abstract recommendation, 'hanging the behavior and attitude
of each man through Environment- • education needs some critical
approaches In those countries which are part of the so called Third
World, among these, mainly the Latin American countries.
Traces of the European culture from the XVIII century, full of an
lllumlnism, inclined to attribute to education capacities and are
still strong enough In the majority of those countries, among these,
the power of modifying men's behavior without taking into
consideration their concrete life conditions. When transported to
Environmental Education, these values are particularly alienated
because they Inhibit the development of a concrete and Immediate view
of rfallty: they inhibit therefore, the creation of responsible
"atlonal policies. Natlonol nollcles can effectively contribute
5?
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not only so the national development process te exempted of risk of
discontinuity, but also so planet aarth maintains Its capacity of
supporting the human beings who Inhabit It.
French economist, Jean-B«^pt1ste Say, wrote In 1983 that a farmer
or leaseholder knows how to take better advantage of the land than a
naturalist who administers his own farm, despite the fact that a
naturalist knows more about land than a farmer. Behind this
statement. Is the ascertalnty that the environmental ^cods do not
exist. In view of society only as natural goods* They are subject. In
our world, to a social relation - property* Therefore, this generic
man to w1)om we refer whi^n we speak about education In general or
Environmental Education In particular. Is not sufficiently generic to
be monolltlc. He Is divided Into at least two classes, those who
detain power and those who do not possess power over the environmental
resources. That Is between those who have and those who do not have
decision power to allocate environmental resources for pre--determ1ned
objectives. It may seem curious, but It Is not surprising that the
International Union for Nature and Natural Resources Preservation
states In the document "World Strategy Towards Preservation" - the
poor people of the rural zones of the world pull out and burn several
million trees yearly, using them as fuel In the kitchen or as
heating. The poor people, that Is, those who lack property, love
nature as well as the rich, however they also consider themselves as
part of nature and love themselves sufficiently, at least not to
commit suicide In the name of preserving a heritage which socially
does not belong to them.
Parallel to this kind cf devastation practiced by about 5000
minions of undernourished and 8000 millions of destituted, who total
around one quarter of tie world's population, we know that 2000 square
kilometers of the best K^nd for culture disappear every year to give
place to buildings and roads, only In the most developed countries -
which affects not only the environmental and social conditions of the
undeveloped countries that have to Ircreaslngly produce food to attend
this additional demand, sacrificing their natural resources and
populations.
As we also know, the undeveloped countries, even those that
experienced significant Industrial Improvements In the past few years,
are all dependent upon the Importation of technology and capital.
Frequently, the technological practices are highly harmful to the
environment and as such, are not accepted any more In their countries
of origin. Because they don't have the means to utilize their own
technology, the undeveloped countries lack sovereignty to Implement
adequate environmental preservation policies:, because they don't have
the fundamental decision power for the allocation of environmental
resources for the productive activities.
Considerations are ueing made with the objective of establishing
the principle that the discussion of Environmental Education can never
Ignore the concrete conditions adopted by the social systems within
which we live. We must not minimize the fact that these social
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57
systems are Industrialists and have as a fundamental asset the
accumulation of capital at the expense of the depletion of nature,
either under the capitalist or the socialist system. This means;
Environmental Education, before anything else. Is Political Education.
There are some well established trends according to which It Is
pos:1b1e to overcome tlie means of Inadequate use of the environment
through the iraiisfer of technology between the developed and
undeveloped countries. Although there Is an efficacy line, well
reduced. It should also be clear that the transfer of knowledge and
the transfer of technology are not the same thing. The transfer of
Ideas may well be something you give more or less free In the course
of communication between societies In this global village, however,
technology Is not an Idea or knowledge In general. It Is the applied
knowledge converted Into capital. And the criterion of efficacy of
capital Is not the fulfillment of genuine human needs, but the power
to produce more capital. Thus, those who have technology produce
technology, for only they can decide the optimal conditions for their
society to apply this technology.
There Is no doubt that these distressing current conditions of
use of the human environment can not be resolved without technological
reorientation. This probably Is easy In a develope<1 country; but. In
the undeveloped countries, to where the Installations and
technological procedures rejected by the central nations are
transferred, this reversion Is not done easily and based on economic
considerations. They would have to develop, at their own expense,
technologies to protect their environmental resources. To this end,
they would have to possess Internal savings for Investments, the power
to establish capital reserves, and transform the consumption habits
already conditioned by the current standards of the developed world.
This Is more a political Issue, that can only be solved according to
political criteria In which Environmental Education can not Interfere,
except as Political Education, as a means of preparing Individuals for
the exercise of citizenship. There Is more; If environmental
degradation Is a real situation, this education has to turn tc tho
present citizen In his community.
Another current trend also places formal education as a
privileged vehicle of Environmental Education, that which Is exercized
In schools and has Its focus In youth. This Is a performance
procedure of unquestionable Interest, however attention should be
called tj the fact that Environmental Education can not be reduced to
this, without taking the risk of falling Into a postponing trap, or
putting off to the future decisions which are already crucial 1n the
present.
It Is In these torms that we are attempting to work with
Environmental Education In Brazil. With the communities, trying to
develop their capacity to Influence in the defense of the
environmental quality and In those aspects which are critical In each
place where they are; In the training of technical
58
Staff and experts, aiming at producing a critical mass capable of
technically Influencing the decision power related to national
development projects and to give practical application to the legal
measures Issued by the State; In the formal education aiming at the
creation and the continuance of a social consciousness oriented
towards the preservation and improvement of (environment quality. We
are not Innovating as to the components of which we consider generally
Environmental Education* Our Intention Is to avoid reducing It to
each of these components In particular* We also are not trying to
utilize Environmental Education as a means of social cf>ntro1 when
actuating together with the communities; on the contrary, despite the
difficulties normally encountered In these situations, we are
attempting to transmit the Idea that nobody educates a community*
except the conmunlty Itself* This education passing unquestionably
through political education, or by the practice of freedom, which Is
the discovery of Its fundamental pr'^blems and the fight for Its
solution.
In relation to the training and recycling of technical staff, we
count with 2 ve'^y Important Instrument, the Environmental Training
Network for Latin American and the Caribbean, which is a initiative of
the governments and institutions of this region and of Interest in
PNUMA (United Nations Environmental Program)*
The Network has as its basic objective to support those national
and subreglonal instituions through the promotion of training.
Investigative and informative activities and environmental material;
to assure the technical cooperation among the countries of the region
and the exchange of experiences of common interest, as well as to
structure a program to support regional environmental training which
complements the specific activities of each one of the participating
countries.
Created by suggestions of the governments of the region and
recognized by the Administrative Council of PNUMA, in 1S79, this
entity of malti lateral help developed several activities in the past
years, be'ng the majority of them ^n attempt to establish an
operational structure appropriate to its purposes, as well as the
gathering of information on the effective demands of the countries
involved, in terms of environmental training, besides the potential
supply of the institutions Involved for the exchange of knowledge,
information and services. Only recently the training activities
started, being the course, held in Rio de Janeiro, for the updating of
technicians (belonging mainly to Brazilian institutions), one of the
most important ones. This course centered in the technology and
environment and attempted to formulate practical and consistent
methodologies for the evaluation of development projects that have a
reflection on the environment.
Notwithstanding the fact that it is a new entity, the Network
presents itself as a promising initiative, being sufficient for this
to consider two aspects: first, that it is organized and oriented
towards the problematic of countries with similar formation and
historical situations; second, that the Network is mainly a concept
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1t dims at the participation of entitles of each participating country
(the Network's focal points), therefore, with the capacity to transmit
experiences resulting from concrete situations and not of Ideal or
theoretical situations, or yet so lacking In objectivity that they
become sufficiently general to Include any country without explaining
or serving any of them.
IV. 0. Ealey, E.H.M. "Contract Research as a Component of
Environmental Education." Director, Graduate School of
Environmental Science, Nonasa University, Clayton. Victoria,
Australia 3168
ABSTRACT
It has been shown feasible to use teams of supervised masters
candidates from the Graduate School of Environmental Science to
undE-take contract research for goveinmefit and Industry thus giving
real life training and earning over $200,000 for Honash University.
The clients not only have the services of an enthusiastic hardworking
team of supervised graduates, they also gain access to University
facilities such as laboratories, computers and library services plus
continuing links with supervising academics.
The research project 1s guided by a committee consisting of
representatives of the Sponsor, the supervisors and a School staff
member. Once the terras of reference are agreed to, there Is no
academic freedom allowed In the research leading to the production of
the Consultant Report. This Is made clear to all concerned. However,
It Is also made clear that the candidates have the right to produce a
thesis with cor*Dlete freedom, even to criticize the Sponsor If they
wish. Thus, everyone gets what they want. The candidates learn two
sorts of writing and gain practical mult1d1sc1pl1nary research
training. The simple contract protects the Sponsor from premature and
possibly embarrassing publication of results but nevertheless,
safeguards the rights of the students to produce theses and publish
wU>*out constraint.
IWTRODUCTIOW
Monash University has been successful In negotiating a number of
agreements with industry and government agencies to provide teams of
"supervised graduate students." The Honash motivation for such
agreements Is to provide "practical training as an element of the
graduate curricula." At the same time, clients have received the
benefit of having the values and viewpoints of entry- level
professionals and also gain usefu' on going links with the supervising
staff of the university. This paper describes several examples of
such agreements and the results achieved.
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60
TH E PROGRAM AT HONASH UNIVERSITY
The Nonash Master of Environmental Science course is two years'
duration of wtiich 25X is research* Teams of candidates are "sold" at
Research Assistant rates, which at present are about $9,000 for six
months' research. Therefore, a four person team would cost $36,000.
This fee covers all expenses of the contract and all expenses of the
candidates. The surplus is used by the School for publications,
additional staff, etc. This fee also covers the services of an
academic supervisor for each team member and those of a staff member
from the School who co-ordinates the supervisors and the students.
Monash staff do not receive personal renumerati ori as the supervision
is part of normal duties.
There are over 150 academics in the University who find
themselves assisting the Graduate School by giving courses or by
supervision of research. An appropriately qualified academic is
appointed to supervise each graduate student and a staff member from
the School co-ordinates the group research and helps edit the final
report. It is difficult sometimes to ensure that supervisors stick to
the contract terras of reference and guide students to produce a report
which win suit the needs of the client. From the data used to
produce the report, thesis topics can be identified and candidates and
supervisors are assured of academic freedom in thesis writing. We
guarantee not to publish anything until after the final report is in
the hands of the client.
The coursework component is designed to remedy deficiencies in
the original degree so that all mefirit)ers of a research team have a
common background as well as their own degree; for example, an
engineer must learn some ecology, while a biologist must learn some
engineering. There is also a compulsory subject on Science and
Systems Theory. However, t;ie most important unit relating to research
is Multidisciplinary Organisation managed by an outside consultant and
an expert in group dynamics. Here, team management, critical path
analysis, etc. are covered while a small project is completed by a
strict deadline. Final teams are formed after this course is
finished. Student Interests, academic skills available and possible
topics for contract research are taken into account. Contracts are
arranged in various ways. Sometimes the School is asked to undertake
a project and in other instances, a topic is identified and funding is
sought by the team and the School.
EXAMPLES OF CONTRACT RESEARCH
Over 60 team projects have been successfully completed. Those on
contract research have earned about a quarter million dollars for the
Graduate School. This list below gives examples: Land Capability for
Recreation; Forest Management and Arboreal Species; Study of Coastal
Crown Lands in the Inverloch Area; Evaluation of the Hiritano
Highway. Papua New Guinea; Werribee Coastline Study; McArthur River
Catchment Management; Problems of Toxic Waste Disposal; Latrobe
River
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Study; If.truslon of Mercury 1n Food Chains; Agricultural Development
In TamhLnan, Sabah» Malaysia; Sallnlsatlon In the Samut Songkhram
Province. Thailand; and H^st Nakanl Oil Palm Scheme. P.N. 6. Social.
Economic and Environmental Effects.
Of these examples, three are worth mentioning In detail:
(1) Social and Economic Impact of the Hirltano Highway. Paoua New
Guinea
This highway had been built to link Berelna In the rich
agricultural land In the Angabunga River basin, to Port Moresby, about
150 km to the east. The objective of this highway was to facilitate
transport of vegetables to Port Moresby, stimulate vegetable
production and thus reduce the need for Imports.
The team of three visited the area for a short Initial fa^t
finding mission and then returned ^^o Australia, where the academic
supervisor and the School revised the terms of reference and set
practical limits to the study. These were agreed to by two
representatives of the P.N. 6. government who assisted with In-country
supervision.
The team assessed the success of the highway and f*)und that for a
number of reasons production and flow of vegetables frcm Berelna had
Increased very little and the cost benefit analysis on which the
decision to build the highway was based was Inappropriate. The team
and supervisors produced Environmental Report Mo, 6 Soclo-Economic
Impact of the Hirltano Highway. The three these produced were not
related to the terms of reference. Indeed. It Is unlikely that the
P.w.C. officials would have Initially agreed to the thesis topl'^^ as
two ^^ere rather controversial. I.e.:
••The disbeneflts of the Hirltano Highway" which pointed up the
problems caused by sudden access between a city and a rural
community such as massive Inflow of beer and consequent social
disruption.
"Factors to be Considered to Stimulate Agricultural Production:"
which emphasized that transport facilities alone would not cau*;e
Increased production of vegetables, especially when the land was
covered with betel nut. a very much more valuable crop.
However, the officers In the National Planning Office found the
theses «t very useful bonus of the contract, and one of the candidates
later gained employment with the National Planning Office. All of the
candidates iearneci a great deal about Papua « New Guinea.
(2) Aspects of the Latrobe River Ecosystem
This river Is the most Important In the region, being L«sed by
power stations, a paper mill, and many towns along its length. The
62
Australian Paper Manufacturers Limited (APH) contracted with the
Graduate School to undertake a baseline study of the river and to
assess the Impact of the discharge from their paper mm on the
river. The research team consisted of a civil engineer (hydrologlst) •
a biologist, and a Chinese chemist from the EPA In Peking. Because
the river condition Is regulated under the Australian EPA State
Environmental Protection Policy (SEPP). Ying Hsuan became Involved In
a most practical way with the working of the Australian £PA as well as
with the Impact of a wel Vregulated paper mill on a river and the
methodology of water quality assessment. The team and supervisors
produced:
— Environmental Report No. 15— Aspects of the Latrobe River
Ecosystem, while each candidate produced a thesis:
An Appraisal of the SEPP for the Haters of the Latrobe
River Catchment.
Effects of Pulp and Paper M111 Wastewater on River Water
Quality.
Environmental Implications of Hydrology and Water
Resources Planning.
In this case the theses were more critical of the EPA policy than
the paper mill.
(3) Land Use Changes and Sallnlsatlon In the Sarout Songkhram
Province. Thailand
This was not actually a contract as It was funded by the
Australian Government. However, It Is worth considering, as the
process Is similar and was extremely successful. Two Thais came to
Australia on fellowships to undertake the Monash M. Env. Sc. with a
view to them returning as stat, members to the Faculty of
Environmental and Resource Studies. As well as completing much of the
course. work component of the degree, they formed a team with two
Australians. The team and a supervisor did the field work and
secondary data collection during a three-month visit to Thailand. The
Australians learned about research In the Third World by falling In
klohngs, being bitten by dogs, and catching amoebic dysentery. The
Thais were most useful as Interpreters and In translating secondary
data. The Australians will be most effective as officers with the
Foreign Affairs Department or In private Indusl.y. All have had the
experience of tackling a most complex array of Interrelated ^and use
problems, using techniques such as Landsat, I. R. photography, soil
and water sampling, economic and social surveying. They also now have
some understanding of the political and financial ramifications of the
land use problems they assessed.
Conclusion
The research component of the Master of Environmental Science program
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at Monash University has been developed so that It can be used by
teams of candidates to earn funds for the university and gain
r«^a1-11fe training. The supervising Member of staff from the Graduate
School ensures the successful completion of all contracts and happily
an have been successful so far. Financial links with Government
agencies certainly Mkes them more Interested In the School and Indeed
some graduates obtain employment after the client has actually seen
him/her at work.
IV. E. Francis, George. "Issues of the Great Lakes: A Transnational
Problem." Chair, Env ronraental Studies Program. University of
Waterloo, ^98 Westcourt Place. Waterloo. Ontario li2L 2R7
Canada
The current status of US-Canadlan cooperation on Great Lakes
issues win be explored through the Water Quality Agreement and
through the Inlernatlonal Joint Commission on the Great Lakes. An
analysis of environmental education opportunities was highlighted.
IV, F. Greenall. Annette. "A New Beginning for Environmental
Education In Australia." Director. Environmental Education.
Department o** Arts. Heritage, and Environment. GPO Box 1252.
Canberra. ACT 2601. Australia
In 1980-81 when I last wrote about the future of envlromrental
education In Australian schools. I was quite pes:»1m1st1c and concluded
that environmental education had been a phenomenon of the affluent
seventies In Australia. This conclusion was based on observations,
reading experience with schools, education authorities, and curriculum
projects over the preceding seven years.
Environmental education alms to develop not only awareness,
understanding, and skills. Most Importantly. It also alms to
e'^courage feelings of concern for the en.'ironment and Its protection.
This means that It Is concerned with social reconstruction
-^-envUonmental education programs must have noral and political
components 1f they are to achieve the accepted alms of environmental
education. In 1980-^81 I argued that environmental education had been
subjected to Incorporation ^Hhln the -existing hegemony of schools 1n
a neutralized form--the radical 'action' components of the
environmental education alms had been deleted from school programs
whilst the less controversial cognitive and skill alms had been
retained, together with the name "environmental education." There was
evidence that programs of this genre lud Increased during the
seventies. Including an Increased environmental content In traditional
subjects in the curriculum. In general terms there was little
Inducement for schools to Implement all the alms of environmental
education.
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64
RELEVANT DEVELOPHEIiTS 198V84
Since I published these conclusions there has been a number of
developments which have made the outlook much more optimistic.
Although the Horld Conservation Strategy yas launched by the Prime
Minister In March 1980, there was no Immediate noticeable action on It
at the nation?! level. However, by late 1984 a Rational Conservation
Strategy for Australia (NCSA) had been developed and endorsed by the
Federals South Australian, Victorian, and Northern Territory
governments.
It Is this NCSA document which gives us a new direction, focus,
and hope for the future of envlroMiental education In Australia. The
document acknowledges the need for environmental education In
Improving the capacity of the community, professionals, technicians,
and users to manage the environment "^d In achieving the objectives of
the NCSA. In 1980 the crucial role of the Horld Conservation
Strategy, and consequently the NCSA, In providing a new stiniulus tor
environmental education In Australia was not clear. Hut It Is now
apparent that the NCSA Is a most Important document for us.
At the non-gover.imental level, the Australian Association for
Envlronriiental Education has grown In strength and Influence. The
Association Is now represented on the Australian Environment Council's
(AEC) Environmental Education and Information Sub-committee. The
Association Is also represented on the Interim Consultative Committee
for the National Conservation Strategy for Australia as the sole
education voice. The Association's representatives at the June 1983
NCSA conference (which developed the NCSA document) were responsible
for instigating Important changes to the references to environmental
education In the strategy docM^oent.
The draft NCSA docun^ent which was discussed by the conference
only saw a need "to develop educatloTi programs to develop awareness
throughout the community " As we all know, promoting awareness Is
only the first step In achieving an environmentally educated public.
In recognition of the need for an "action* component to environmental
education programs, the Assoclatloti representatives managed to get the
Conference to agree that education programs should also encourage the
practice of living resource conservation for sustainable development.
Th1i expansion Is a vital addition when considering the future
directions of environmental education In Australia.
In<leed chls acceptance of the role of education In encouraging
envlror^neiital action Is quite a step forward. In the past,
envircnmentdi education had mainly been envisaged and Implemented In
terms of developing awareness and understanding, so this formal
r^f^cgnltlon ancl recorn:<iendat1on for environmental education to
encourage action is most Important.
T he Future
The National Conservation Strategy for Australia provide: a focus
and framework for developing environmental education programs for
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65
scho Is and other audiences.
The four objectives of living resource conservation adopted for
the NCSA Include three Identified In the World Conse'^vatlon Strategy.
The objectives are;
to maintain essential ecological processes and life-support
systems;
~ to preserve genetic diversity;
to ensure the sustainable utilisation of species and
ecosystems; and
to maintain and enhance environmental qualities.
These objectives give basic guidelines for developing future
environmental education programs.
Within the NCSA, education and training Is seen as one of the
priority national actions. Specifically, the actions are to:
a^ Develop and support Informal education and Information
programs. Including those conducted by voluntary and other
non-government organizations, which promote throughout the
community an awareness of the Interrelationships between the
elements of the life-support systems and which encourage the
practice of living resource conservation for sustainable
development.
b. Review, strengthen, and develop In schools environmental
education programs which have regard for the basic objectives
and principles of the NCSA.
c. Review, strengthen, and di^velop training, retraining, and
extension programs for professionals, technicians, and users
Involved In planning and management of activities which
Impinge upon living resources, which have regard for the
basic objectives and principles of the NCSA.
The endorsement of the NCSA by the federal government and the
support for the NCSA in Australian Labor Party (ALP) policy all also
give hope for the future. The fec^eral government is now examining
ways of Implementing the strategy, such as through the national soil
conservation program and national tree program, and education Is
accepted as a most Important Implementation strategy. Environmental
education Is recognlseo In the ALP Policy as a means of f;»c111 tating
public participation and awareness of conservation for sustainable
df^velopment. Developing appropriate programs to achieve the NCSA
objectives Is a task for the present and future.
Conclusion
The NCSA is a most significant document for Australia as Its
endorsement, or even acceptance In principle, by the Commonwealth,
State, and Territory governments Indicates a turning point In the
prevailing attitudes to the Australian environment. To paraphase
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John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1961), .adopting the principles and objectives
of the NCSA will mean that we will no longer be asking what our
envlroninent can do for us. instead we will be asking what we can do
for our environment.
However, If Australia 1s to succeed In achieving living resource
conservation for sustainable development there Is a crucial role for
education and training In developing public awareness and encouraging
Individual and group participation In appropriate practices* This Is
a large task and thet^ Is a danger that the enormity of It could prove
too much.
Environmental cJucatlon progrems which aim to achieve the
objectives of ^;ie KCSA will nee^i to be Interesting, stimulating,
colourful, arj appealing. They will not only be designed to develop
awareness, understanding, and feelings of concern, they will also need
to motivate people to act constructively for the envlronm^. t. This
will mean a change from the fact-orientation of many current
environmental education programs to an act1on*or1entat1on* Facts are
still an Important component of the process of educating people for
action, but they are not sufficient In themselves. As a recent
exploratory survey of public attitudes to nature conservation by
McNaIr Anderson concluded:
:Our data seems to show that, given present levels of knowledge,
and present attitudes. Australians only think about Nature
Conservation when a specific Issue arises. Once that Issue fades
a»^ay, so does awareness and Interest.
... If a campaign stimulates Interest, excitement and
Involvement, there Is a real danger of frustration If they are
not told what they can do about It."
Action Is an Integral part of the success of environmental
education.
At the moment environmental education does not have the high
profile It needs. ?1any people still only associate the environment
with Issues such as th.. Franklin dam or Cape Tribulation road. They
don't know about "living resource conservation for sustainable
development." We need to get this message or philosophy tor living
across to as many people as we can through formal and non-foimal
education programs. To do this, government ^nd non-government
organisations will need to become more political— seeking funding and
publicity, representation on appropriate committees, and, most
Importantly, being visible as environmental educators.
All Interested Australians must work together to get the NCSA
message across and to get It Implemented around Australia.
The National Conservation Strategy for Australia Is a document wo
can all analyse and act upon. It Is most unusual In that It was
arrived at by consensus by government. Industry, conservation, and
othei Interest groups Just over a year ago. It has a lot going for It
and It has a lot going for us because It gives us a focus for
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developing our future progran^s and ^or seeking mor^^ attention and
funding for environmental education.
aiblloqraphy
A6PS. "A National Conservation Strategy for Australia.*" Canberra,
Australia, 1984.
AnstralUr, Labor Party. Platform 1984. ALP Secretariat. Canberra,
Australia, 1984.
Curriculum Development Centre. "Core Curriculum for Australian
Schools ! What It Is and Why It Is Heeded." Canberr*:, Australia,
1980.
Greenall, A.E. Environmental Education In Australia: Phenomenon of
the Seventies. Canberra: Curriculum Development Centre. 1981.
Curriculum Occasional Paper No. 7.
^ireenall, A.E. "Environmental Education: A Study In National
Curriculum Action." Environmental Education and Information .
1981, 1(4), 285-294.
Greenall, A. "Education and Environment.* Heritage Australia , 1983,
2(1), 42-43.
Greonali, A. "Starring with Or. Seuss." Paper given at Endangered
species conference. Total Environment Centre, Sydney. 1984.
McNaU Anderson Assoc1a':es Pty Ltd. Report on an Exploratory Survey
of Public Attitudes In Relation to Nature Conservation."
July/August 1982.
South Australia, Education Department. "Our Schocls and Their
Purposes: Into the 80's." Adelaide: Government Printer, 1981.
World conservation strategy . Switzerland: lUCN, 1980.
IV. 6. Holmes, Roland C. "Environmental Education: A Third World
Experience." Assistant Professor, Department of feography.
University of South Florida. St. Petersburg, FL 33701
Through the efforts of the Peruvian university system, a new
awareness of a iroad range of environmental Issues Is coming Into
focus. Some problems uelng addressed by these universities Include
Increasing food production, protecting unique natural env1,i>nments for
present and future generations, and Informing the citizenry on how
best to cope with the earthquake hazard. Within this context,
environmental education can play a vital role In the curriculum of
Peruvian college students. Env1ronm€<ital education links academic
learning to the commurlty and heightens one's appreciation of the
conncsctlons that exist among many of these pressing problems.
This paper sets forth tJie author's experience In teaching
environmental education courses at the University of San Agustin In
Arequlpa, Peru.' Since envnonmental education should Include an
ana.ysls of hOw people make decisions, these courses concentrated on
resource management. 2 a geographic viewpoint formed the basis of
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this teaching. The conceptual presentation began by raising a
fundamental environmental question that was analyzed from two
distinctly different perspectives. Later students used four basic
methods to analyze resource or environmental management situations
Finally, challenging field studies followed the theoretical
discussions. As an outcome of this tea^Mng, the university published
a monograph on Arequlpa's natural resources.
Field Studies
These foregoing principles were among the more difficult ones to
be applied by me In two courses taught to Peruvian students In the
University of San Agustln. Field studies formed an Integral part of
the resource management courses so that the principal objective
centered on the pragmatic presentation of theoretical Ideas previously
discussed In class, in addition, the outings allowed students the
opportunity to acquire a comprehensive view of their conwunlty.
The field exercises focused mainly on the chief economic activity
0. the region— Irrigation agriculture. By concentrating on only the
one resource activity of Irrigation, the class was able to comprehend
readily the basic concepts of resource man^jement. Students learned
about good and bad management practices and the causal factors
determining these differences. The exercises emphasized the
approaches used In studying resources, especially the analytical
approach.
As backgrounu Information, data collection and analysis
constituted an important field operation. Specifically, students made
precise measurements of the hydrologic system and mapped land uses of
Irrigated areas. They also drew landscape sketches to establish ^aslc
spatial relationships. Finally, students Interviewed farmers and
government officials concerning their water-use practices and related
activities.
To give a sense of realltv to the students' field work, our group
held several town meetings. At these sessions off1 lals and other
village ; met the students and heard their presentations, after which
a llvetj discussion ensued.
Students learned several thinys fr^m this field experience for
Instance:
— that gathering field Information, Including the making and
recording of meaningful observations, Is a necessary and
Involved undertaking;
that managing resources constitutes a complex prc-.-^ss; and
-- that politics forms an Integral part of the management of
natural resources.
Conclusions
Lecturing on resource management in the Third World challenges
those who come from more developed areas. While environmental ethics
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and pollution control are Important topics In resource management, If
overemphasized these subjects can easily overshadow a concern for the
beneficial uses of resources for economic development. This paper has
expressed a positive viewpoint about the role of resource man<.jement
In environmental education, it supports the claims that f^.eld studies
should be Incorporated Into an environmental program and that a
holistic approach as expressed In geography can make an appropriate
and valuable coitrlbutlon In educating students who have an Interest
In the environment.
For a meaningful presentation of concepts In the resource
manageinent courses » the gr'^up engaged In theoretical discussions
followed by field studies. As a capstone of this teaching* a Joint
publication was prepared* Two Important and contradictory
perspectives on the resource/population question were purposely
presented that enabled students to better grasp the complex Issues.
By applying concepts of resource management In the field » and by
allowing them to Interact with the local population {the actual
managers of resources), students developed a better grasp of the
parameters under which they must function In defending the resource
base. In having several members of the resource management courses
participate In writing a monograph about the resources of the local
area, I was able to effect a close union amongst students » Peruvian
colleagues, and me. As a result of this collaboration, we hope that
participants In this enterprise will be more willing to Implement
lessons learned. Fellow Fulbrlght scholars (Gullahorn and Gullahorn,
n.d.) have cogently captured the essence of this exper1ence--a message
that bears repeating. The following paraphrases their Idea: Unlike
the stranger who comes to teach In a foreign land and Is considered a
person who comes today and goes tomorrow, with a bit of cultivation
and much hard work, one can Instead be considered a person who corner
today and stays tomorrow.
Nevertheless, two points of caution are In order. First, the
interested teacher should not expect too much from students or
colleagues: a rule of thumb that allows one tc revel In pleasant
surprises when things turn out well. Second, always be ready to
1mprov1se>^a condition that can range from making a base map without
sophisticated Instruments to unexpectedly spending the night on the
open desert at near freezing temperatures because of transport
problems.
University education In Peru should continue to be more community
related and reflect In the classroom societal r;eeds. This Is the
place where environmental education can play an Important role In
connecting the university to the community and where the study of
resource management can contribute much to a meaningful education in
the Third World. Tralnlno In resource management enables students to
uncerstand the need for proper management of resourc**s In economic
development. On the other hand, when they are encouraged to engage in
field studies, students eventually will come to Investigate the whole
gamut of their heritage and begin to appreciate how the entire
cultural and physical milieu Infringes on the decision-making process
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In resource management. In particular, through the use of the
analytical approach to the study of resources, one arrives at an
under starling of a fundamental theme In environmental education: the
responsive behavior we take towards the environment. Finally, as
Stapp has so ably stated.
It has become Increasingly evident that there can
be no hope of finding viable solutions to environ-
mental problems unless and until education at all
levels Is also suitably modified to enable people
from all walks of life to comprehend from childhood
the fundamental Interactions and Inter-relatlonshlps
between humans and their environment" (Stapp, 1979,
p. 37).
IV. H. James, Carleton A. "Environmental Edu?*-1on and Public Awareness
1n the wider Caribbean: an Overview." Consultant, Caribbean
Conservation Association, Savannah Lodge, The Garrison, St.
Hichael, Barbados, West Indies.
This discourse Is based on a project currently being executed by
the United Nations Environment Programme, through the Caribbean
Conservation Association, on behalf of some thirty Governments of the
Wider Caribbean. For the purpose o* this project and Its framework,
the United Nations Environment Programme (UHEP) Caribbean ;^ct1on Plan,
the Wider Caribbean Is defined as that region comprising the Insular
and coastal States and Territories of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf
of Hexico, Including the Bahamas, Guyana, Surlname, and the French
Department of Guiana, as well as the waters of the Atlantic Ocean
adjacent to those states and territories.
The framework, the Carlbbe-.n Action Plan concentrates Its
activities on the coastal areas, with special reference to thf
Interactions among terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems, and has
a*^ Its objectives:
the assistance to governments of the region In minimizing
environmental problems In the Wider Caribbean through assessment
of the state of the environment, and development activities In
environmental manage/nsnt; and
the establishment of a framework for activities requiring
regional cooperation to strengthen the capacity of the states and
territories of the region for Implementing sound environmental
management practices, and thus, achieve the goal of development
ot the region on a sustainable basis.
This cooperation specifically 1ncluv,es:
1) Assistance to all countries of the region, recognising the
special situation of the small Island countries;
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2) Use of the region's human, financial and natural resources
through technical cooperation among developing countries
(TCDC);
3) Regional self-reliance through the sharing of experience In
common problems;
4) Cooperation on problems of a transnational or International
nature. Including natural and man-^lndueed disasters;
5) Stimulation and coordination of International assistance
activities;
6) Strengthening of existing national and subreglonal
Institutions; and
7) Increasing public Interest In, and awareness of the
environment/development process.
It is on this area of environmental education and public
awareness, maintained as a top priority project by the governmer^ts of
the Caribbean and UNEP, that I will dwell In this presentation.
Since 1974 the Caribbean Conservation Association has been
Involved In environmental education In the region through Its
programme of speakers on environmental topics In secondary schools In
Barbados, and elsewhere In relation to the enrichment of the quality
of life through public awareness. It was almost natural then that the
CCA should have been chosen by UNEP as the 1nv)1ement1ng organisation
for a project of this nature.
Implementation of The Project on Environmental Education and
Public Awareness In the Wider Caribbean was begun early in 1982,
almost a year after the Intergovernmental Neeting In April 1981 In
Jamaica, at wTtlct. Its top priority status was agreed upon.
The first pUse was mainly a survey of environmental education
activities In tho area to help determine the state as well as the
status of the activity reglon-^wlde and Identify existing Indigenous
resource materials. This activity took the form of visits by
consultants to most of the countries and the use of a questionnaire
(copy attached at Annex 1)* In the case of countries where a visit
was not possible, the qjestlonnalres were sent to governments and
non-governmental organisations and the Information collated upon
receipt an(j returned to governments for verif Icatlon,
The Information collected during the Survey was Instructive and
revealing. For example, we learned that:
1) In many countries, at the governmental level, there was a
blurring of responsibility for environmental matters,
constnuently mattei : such as land use, environmental law,
environmental health, energy, human settlements arsd marine
resource management were handled by different ministries of
govern'' nt, without a central coordination point. This
result Invariably In Inadequate coordination of activities.
2) At the ^chool or Institutional level, there Is no subject on
the curriculum entitled environmental edu atlon. Rather,
environmental education appeared as a component of other
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subjects such as General Science, Social Studies, Geography,
etc. Curriculum developers everywhere were adamant that this
approach was better than the Introduction of yet another
subject Into already overcrowded curricula.
3) Contrary to popular belief, both In and beyond the Caribbean,
there Is a concern for the environment among Caribbean
officials and technical personnel. The main barriers to more
positive action are a paucity of informatlvf?, poverty,
pressure to reduce unemployment and underemployment, and the
absence of any obvious and dramatic environmental mishap, the
results of which could lead to massive public support for
allocating a greater share of national budget allocations,
enacting legislation, or enforcing legislation which alr3ady
exists.
4) WUh one notable exception, the smaller the country the less
was the emphasis on environmental education and public
awareness.
5) The level of cooperation between countries of the region Is
severely hampered by the barriers of language, culture, and
tradition, e.g. the volume and scope of information and
resource materials In Jamaica to the north and Antigua and
Barbuda to the south, could be tremendously enhanced by the
Infusion of material and the sharing of experiences from
Puerto Rico which lies between them. However, because of
these barriers, those countries are much more likely to
Initiate discussions with other English-speaking Caribbean
countries, or the U.S. mainland or Canada.
6) Despite the above, there Is a spontaneous willingness among
technical people to exchange Information, aiiu to collaborate
and a yearning for some mechanism to make this possible.
This willingness as expressed during the two year survey
(1982-1983) has already manifested Itself In the donation of
texts and audio-visual material to the Secretariat of the
Caribbean Conservation Association for replication and use
elsewhere In the region.
7) Unlike many groups In North America and Western Europe, the
environmental non-governmental organisations In the Caribbean
are not pressure groups, lobbyists, or aggressively active.
Rather, they are groups of concerned citizens with common
academic or social Interests which provide Information
through publications, lectures, etc., and a persuasive
approach to a realignment of attitudes at the level of the
politician and the general public. Most of these
organisations deal with the historical and cultural
environment through National Trusts and similar activities
aimed at preservation of the architectural and Historical
heritage.
8) The mass media are willing ai.^ eager to use environmental
public awareness material, but need to have the material
provided by environmentalists, governments, universities,
scientists, etc.
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The above are some Insights into environmental education and
public awareness activities In the Caribbean, obtained during the
survey. The 1()format1on collected In the survey 1$ being published by
UNEP In a directory which will be available In January 198S* Another
product, a manual on coral reefs for schools Is due to be available at
about the same time.
Phase II
The Caribbean Action Plan Monitoring Committee, whose main work
Is follow up and evaluation of the Plan, has continued to maintain the
high priority of the Project on the list of priorities of the Plan,
and authorised limited funding for the next phase, January-December
1984. During this phase, the main activities were the holding of an
Environmental Education Workshop for media personnel from the region
In Barbados 6-8 June 1983, production of public awareness material for
circulation throughout the region, and work toward the development of
a network of cooperetors In environmental education In the region.
The workshop was held. In view of the realisation that the public
Information media In the region were expected to be catalysts In
almost every area of development, and yet were rarely ever exposed to
the subjects they were expected to deal with, eg* economics,
diplomacy, agriculture, public health, etc* It war decided,
therefore, to Invite nominations for participants from government and
non-government media for three days of exposure to, and Immersion In,
matters of an environmental nature, and discussion on suitability of
various approaches to environmental communication In the region. The
workshop also provided the opportunity for discussion on the needs of
communications personnel for the Implementation of sustained
programmes of environmental public awareness.
The public awareness material currently being produced consists
mainly of a series of 30-m1nute radio documentary features entitled
"The Caribbean Environment and You," which are circulated for monthly
brc ::cast to twenty-five stations In the Caribbean ? ' ^i-g1un on topics
Including "Coastal Conservation, Environmental Legis ion and
Education, the work of the Caribbean Environmental Hi.,.lth Institute,
and Watershed Protection," Other components Include radio and
television public service announcements and short newspaper articles.
The response to these products has been positive, in that the
feedback from participants In the workshop was that It was a long
overdue Initiative which should be foUowed-up. The feedback from
governments on the media material Is that the radio programmes were
regularly used and repeated, while In the case of miaterlal on
video-tape, much greater use Is being made of dissemination through
video home systems (VHS) In small groupr and service organisations,
then throuijh national television systems. I'hls Is understandable In
view of the embryonic stage of national television In most of the
Island states and the absence of national television as In the cases
of Angullla and Guyana.
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During this phase, also, tne Caribbean Conservation Association
has worked closely with the Division of Environmental Education of
Ohio State University and the Rare Animal Relief Effort (RARE) of the
United States on environmental education projects in the region,
consistent with the goals of the Caribbean Action Plan.
Phase III
This project is about to enter its third phase In 1985. This Is
a consolidation phase with the following objectives, activities and
outputs.
Objectives
Short term
1) To ensure coordination of action In connection with
environmental education and public awareness activities being
carried out within the Ulder Caribbean, particularly by
organisations outside the region, %#1th a view to ensuring
their compatlbllty with the objectives of the Caribbean
Action Plan.
2) To improve the conceptualisation, development and evaluation
of their pi!b11c awareness programmes In the countries of the
region.
3) To facilitate and encourage the storage, production, and
exchange of Indigenous resource materials, printed,
audio-visual or otherwise. In the countries of the region.
4) To promote the use of audio-visual material about the
Caribbean environment from the perspective of the Caribbean
peoples.
Long te rm
To develop an environmental ethic among the populations of the
region, leading to the support of regional Intergovernmental
Initiatives consistent with the priorities and goals of the Caribbean
Action Plan.
Activities ard Workplan
The Caribbean Consarvatlon Association will:
1) function as a co-^ordl nation point for regional environmental
education activities, and as a clearinghouse for resource
materials;
2) provide specific assistance to Individual countries In the
production of Indigenous audio-visual material for their own
public awareness activities and encourage the production of
material for use In primary and secondary schools;
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3) continue the production and circulation of public Information
material of regional Interest, Including the quarterly
"Caribbean Conservation News,* which will be Improved;
4) develop closer links between environmental education and
public awareness personnel In the English and
Spanish-speaking Caribbean, through liaison with ROLAC and
other Intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations;
and
5) will select consultants to work toward the Implementation of
this phase of the project.
Outcjt and their use
1) Agreement and collaboration between the various organisations
and agencies concerned with environmental education In the
region.
2) Video programmes for use by community, national, regional and
International media to provide concise Information on the
state of the Caribbean Environment, the level of awareness
among Caribbean people. Including decision-makers, what Is
being done, and how the average person can help In various
efforts.
3) Improved production skills among national media, and an
Informal network of collabor^ rs, the nucleus of which
already exists In the form ol the participants In the June
1984 CAP Workshop for media personnel held In Barbados.
4) Public Information material copies of which could be made
available upon request, for broadcast, reference, or research.
In conclusion, environmental education and public awareness In
the wider Caribbean Is taking place at a number of levels - national
and regional, sometimes with allocations from national budgets, but
more often with International funding and technical assistance.
In the Spanish-speaking Caribbean, there are a number of well
developed programs at the university level. In the English-speaking
Caribbean, the University of the West Indies, through Its School of
Education, has a program of environmental education In Its
teacher-training activities, through Its campuses In Jamaica and
Barbados, and Teacher Training Colleges In the smaller Islands. The
French Departments of MartlnlQje and Guadeloupe have access to and
support from France In the development of this type of training.
Throughout the Wider Caribbean, public awareness activities are
taking place, and being executed by Individuals, groups, agencies and
governTOnt departments on specific subjects. The common need,
however. Is for audio-visual and printrd material development and
exchange, and access to Information as to where suitable might be
available. It 1s envisaged that the Caribbean Conservation
A..soc1dt1on Secretariat In Barbados, will perform a clearing house
function for the short term to satisfy this need. The long term plan,
as agreed to by UNEP and the governments. Is to establish a Regional
Coordination Unit, as funds become available.
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The picture then Is one of hope, given an adequate level of
Intra-reglonal cooperation and collaboration. My colleagues In the
prolect and I believe that a presentation such as this, on a project
currently being executed could serve a imiltltude of purposes. It
could serve to give reolonal and International environmental planners,
resource managers, decision makers, researchers and public education
specialists, an Insight Into a sensltlsatlon process now underway In a
region of the world with many different cultures, languages, and
models of socio-economic development, and many small Insular states,
with fragile ecosystems, and severely limited carrying capacities.
Through this. It 1s hoped to bring to the fiittentlon of the many
environmentalists here and of course their organizations, that there
already exists a framework for environmental education and public
awareness activities in the Wider Caribbean, approved by the
governments, within whUh they tan structure their proposals for
pre* cts In the region, thereby Increasing the likelihood or these
projects making a contribution to the sustainable development of the
region.
IV. I. Lleberman, Gerald A. "RARE: Envlronmentc Education
Catalyst." President, RARE, Inc., 1601 Connecticut Avenue,
N.W., Washington, O.C. 20009.
INTRODUCTION
There has been great progress In the protection of the Earth's
natural heritage during the past twenty years. However, the lasting
success of these efforts Is endangered! by rapidly gro'^lng popu'atlons
which cause continually changing patterns of resource use In
developing countries.
RARE believes that we must begin to build support for
conservation through education and training. If we are to assure the
long-term effectiveness of con ^rvatlon programs Implemented by
various organizations In developing countries.
Recently, the World Wildlife Fund-US (WWF-U3) recognized that the
vast ree'l r.nd p'^tentlal for conservation education and training could
significantly Increase ^-he Intact of Its ongoing international
conservat'on program. Thus, RARE and WWF-US decided to Join efforts
In this .rtportant field. RARE has since become the conservation
education affiliate of HWF-US, and as stch, develops and directs all
International conservation education programs on their behalf.
CONSERVATION NEEDS AND GOALS OF AN EDUCATION AND TRAINING STRATEGY
Seeds
In order to Improve the menagement of natura resources through
conservation education and training, RARE has undertaken programs
which address three basic needs:
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1) Archiving modifications 1n the processes of policy-making
among decis'lon-roakers In both the public and private sector;
2) Changing the cultural and sociological relationship of the
citizens at 'arge to their environment; and.
3) Increasing technical capabilities and human resources in the
field of natural resources management and conservation.
Goals
To be effective, we believe that conservation educat:on must
occur at all levels of society and must teach p<;ople now to live in a
sustainable manner with the natural resources upon which they depend.
It 1s critical that these efforts result in modification of day-^to-day
policy-making processes in both public and private sectors, and that
the cultural and sociological relationships of citizens to their
environment undc lo dramatic change.
RARE*s programs are designed to achieve the following five goals:
6oal I: To incorp o r a te global resource management concerns into
government and private sector policy-making processes.
Goal II: To Improve understanding bv the general public and
thereby encourage support for the development of appropriate
natural resources management and conservation policies.
Goal III: To develop conservation ethics in young people that
win enable them to become responsible stewards of their natural
resources.
Goal IV: To change patterns of consumption of natural resource s
on an International basis.
Goal V: To Increase the technical capabilities of professior^ls
dealing with natural resource management in developing countries.
THt PROCESS OF CONSERVATION PROGRAMMING
Keeping in mind RAf(E*s conservation goals, education and training
must guide individuals beyond a general awareness of environmental
problems and shculd provide the technical capabilities necessary to
implement effective management programs. Conservation eaucation and
training activities must deal with under'^tanding of environmental
problems and lead to the actions which eventually solve these problems.
A five step progression for resolving environmental management
problems Is outlined in detail below:
1) Awareness of an Environmental Problem Individuals or
groups must be tiiade aware of an environmental problem before
they can be expected to take any action.
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2) Understanding the Problem — In addition to being aware that
a problem exists. It Is crucial that people understand the
causes of the problem; In this way, they will be able to work
toward Iti solution.
3) Comprehension of one's Relationship to the Problem — Once
people become aware of the problem and develop an
understanding of It, they can i)eg1n to relate a specific
environmental problem t^ their present health, well-being,
and economic situation, etc., and begin to consider the type
of environment which will be available for their children and
grandchildren.
4) Notlvatlon to Look for Solutions to the Problem — People
only become motivated to take -action after they realize that
an environmental problem and Its consequences can affect
their personal health and happiness.
5) Search for Solutions to the Problem ~ Solutions to
environmental problems range from public education to
technical training activities for professionals. In some
cases the Implementation of these solutions Is complicated
and may require specialized technical assistance In addition
to training.
6) Implementation of Corrective Actions — Implementation of
corrective actions requires all of the ^bove steps. The
support of decision-makers and the general public Is ciudal
for the long-term success of any actions undertaken by
technically capable natural resource managers.
HOW RARE PROJECTS IN EDUCATION Ai^D TRAINING ARE DEVELOPED
STAGE I: IDENTIFICAITON OF GOALS
Clearly defined conservation goals provide the basis upon which
decisions are to be made for the next four stages In the strategy.
These goals constitute the underlying assumptive framework from which
the educator approaches specific conserv ion probleRiS.
STAGE II: ANALYSIS OF NEEDS
Priorities are determined through the study of a given country's
status regarding each of the five education and training goals. Only
an in-depth, country-specific strategy can adequately Identify highest
priority needs. These needs are than translated Into education and
training objectives and subsequently, methods.
STAGE III: AUDIENCE AND METHODS
After basic needs have been identified and priorities set, the
audience Is researched. Because methods must be audience specific,
inadequate understanding of an audience can result in Ineffective
education and training programs. Generally, several methods are
combined to form an education and training package.
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STAGE IV: APPROACHES AND IMPLEHENTATION
Education and training objectives, knowledge of selected
audiences and choices of methods constitute a program. Part of RARE's
overall education training strategy Involves determining how a program
can best be developed and Implemented In a given country. There are
four basic approaches wtilch are used depending upon the financial and
technical resources available In the target country, these include:
1) RARE staff development and implementation of programs; 2.t providing
technical assistance to a government, private voluntary organization
of Individual: 3) tralnlny professionals In less developed countries
(LCD's) to enable tham to develop their own st,r»\teg1es anu program^;
and, 4* providing funds to groups and Individuals who are pursuing
activities and Implementing programs compatible with RARE's
conservation education and training goals.
STAGE V: EVALUATION
Evaluation of each proJe::t 1s used to Identify problems as well
as positive attributes and allow for adjustment on subsequent projects.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
h number of conservation education and training programs have
been Identified for Implementation, based upon RARE's conservation
education and training goals and the previously describee process.
Many of these activities are parts of already on-going programs,
others ar* new and will be In^lemented at the earliest possible time.
Because ra'IE Is worUng to achieve long-term conservation yoals,
H Is crucial tf»at the International education and training programs
be developed and implemented in cooperation with agencies In t.^e
"target" countries. In this way our programs produce both direct-
benefits for the countries involved and act as the cata'yst for local
activities undertaken with or without RARE's continuing assistance.
IV. J. Llsn, Atne. v.r,v1roiii"ental Education IihplUatlons of
technological Oevelc^^i«en*: ;rv the ^rcMc." University of
Trondheim, N-7C84, Melmus, Norway.
(no text has been made ^^allable)
IV. K. Medina, Augusto Q. "The Caribbean Environmental Education
Program." Education Speclalls RARE, Inc., 1604 Connecticut
Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C 20009.
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The Idyllic picture of an Island paradise In the eastern
Caribbean Is easily shattered for those who look beyond the gleam'.ng
notels and white san<^ beaches* Deforestation, erosion, habitat loss,
and solid waste disposal are .lust a few of the problems confronting
these fragile tropical envlronvnents. At the same time. Individuals
with the necessary skills to Increase public awareness and take action
on these Issues are few.
In Auyust of 1983, the Agency for International Development (AID)
gave a $125,000 grant for International envlrowmental education to
RARE, Inc., the World Wildlife Fund-US education affiliate. This
grant enabled the launching In April 1984 of the Caribbean
Environmental Education Program (CEEP), a good example of World
W^ildllfe Fund-US/RARE's overall conservation education program.
CEEP addresses the shortage of conservation educators In the
eastern Caribbean by training Caribbean professionals In environmental
education and puollc awareness techniques. Unlike typical training
programs In developing countries, CEEP has recruited most of It*;
Instructors from among local environmental experts who underst«ind the
region's problems. Specialists from the United States are also
participating. Together, these experts are working with the trainees
who are learning to design and Implement environmental education
programs for their countries.
CEEP Is supplementing training with funds so that all
participants can Implement an environmental education and public
awareness program In their own country. Technical assistance Is also
being made available to help ensure that the momentum developed during
the training will not be lost when part^t:1pants face the challenge of
their home sltu.^tlon.
On the Island of St. Lucia, during Phase I of the progr^^r,
t'^alnees Investigated major resource management Issues conr^un to the
eastern Carlboean countries. This study was reinforced by travel
throughout the Irland t^ study local environmental problems.
Participants saw example?^ uf slash-and-burn agriculture, visited an
oil storage Installation and snorkeled on a coral reef. This gave
participants first-hand knowledge of the problems and helped them
develop an appreciation for the complexity of environmental Issues.
Participants were also exposed to the Important role that natural
r^esource and socio-economic data play In understanding the dynamics of
an issue. An exercise which investigated Important natural resource
Issues on St. Lucia (sand mining, solid waste, and conch cxolft^tatlon)
gave the participants the opportunity to practice ard sharpen their
own data gathering skills. A prototype environmental education
program was thAn developed based on the data collected by the
participants.
Durlag Phase II participants returned to their countries to
collect Information on environmental Issues of concern there. Four
participants Investigated fisheries related Issue: such as destruction
of coral reef:, conch and spiny lobster overfishing, and reclamation
of inangrove swamps.
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Other participants researched endangered wildlife and soil
eroslcn problems due to deforestation and agricultural practUes.
Participant* used this Information during Phase III of the program to
determine appropriate programs dn6 materials as well as design a
strategy for mounting an environmental education campalan \n their
respective countries. In addition, Phase III, a 4 week'lo^^g session,
stressed training In a wide array of education and cofflmunl cation
methods .
Ourlns Phase IV participants are In their own countries
Implementing the environmental education strategy they developed
during Phase III. They are working to Increase public awareness ab jt
the Issue they selected and are seeking local support to ta^e action
on the prob.cm. Environmental education materials to address the
Issue ar olso being developed by the participants. These materials
will later be disseminated throughout the region to maximize the use
of the products of this workshop.
In June 1985 part*'-*Dants and Instructors will meet again for
Phase V, the final phas of the program to assess the effectiveness
of the envlionmental ed;icat1on campaigns Implemented by the
participants. In addUton, strategies for sustaining future education
eff i ;s 1n th» region will be developed.
E, bring .ng together Individuals from different countries, CEEP
hopes to burd an environmental education network In the eastern
Caribbean and stimulate Increased envlrormental awareness and action.
If successful, CEEP will serve as a mod'. i fof conservation education
training In other developing regions of ths world.
IV. L. Hetcalfe, Pettr. "Environmental Science for Solomon Islands
Teachers: a Pattern for Third WorVJ Coujitrlesi" Arraldale
College of Advanced Education, Annldale, N.S W., Australia 2350.
General Background
The Solomon Islands Is an Independent country situated In tue
Soyth-We:t pacific. There are 6 main Islands, and hundreds of smaller
Islands. The main Islands are mountainous with only limited areas of
flat to undulating land. The cVjmate Is tropical and the vegetation
1s basically t: epical rainforest with mangroves being widespread. The
surrounding seas are rich In fisn and there are Urge expanses of
coral reefs and lagoons.
V flora &nd fauna are rich and varied, there being many ,idem1c
species. For example 44X of bird >pec1es are endemic to th? Solomons
and 38X are unique subspecies or races (Diamond, 1976).
The population Is approximately 250,000 with a growth rate of
approximately 3.5X cer annum, the highest In th(. Asla-Parlfic region.
Ninety percent of the population live In coastal villages of fewer
than 100 people. In 1982 the cash gross domestic product uas $400 per
h^ad (Hughes 1982). Life expectancy was 54 years . '»r1a was the
major diseise In the country.
82
Major exports are logs and fish which are extracted from the
ecosystem. The plantation products copra and palm oil are also
exported. Major Imports are petroleum fuels, manufactured goods,
mac/tlner'' and transport equipment, and food and beverages.
Fo ne majority of the population basic needs are met directly
from th' Dcal ecosystems rather than through the cash economy. Food,
housing materials, water and firewood are drawn from the nearby
gardens, forests, mangroves, streams, and lagoons.
Students Background
Most students begin teacher training after three years of
secondary education. Typically they under-value their (wn knowledge
of their environment and perhaps over-value book knowi«»dge. They have
rarely been given the opportunity to develop science process skills
during their schcoling and these skills need to be developed. English
Is frequently the^r third language after local langua^^ an*i PlJIn.
The students therefore need practice at expressing their own Ideas 1r
spoken and written English. Since reading Is not a common pastime
there Is also the need for reading comprehension exercises to Improve
their reading skills.
Methods of Curriculum Developr cnt
Discussions were held with a broad cross-section of the cominunlty
Including teachers and headmasters, factory managers, logging
managers, community development workers, conservationists, health
workers, ei:c. Tn addition, a wide range of the aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems of the Solomon Islands were Investigated first
hand. Published materials about the Solomons and the Pacific Region
were gathered.
All discussions and field lifivestlgatlons were geared to . iswer
the overall question: "What science Is appropriate for the Solomon
Islands?"
The topics, nominated by the Solomon Islanders as being
appropriate, were ar.^anged as shown In Diagram I to show
1nter-relat1onsh1ps between t^e topics.
Many activities and excursions were trialed on train ^ teachers
using different teaching strategies. Field activities were also
undertaken with primary teachers and primary and sect^ndary classes.
Practice teaching supervision made evident the richness of the
typical school environment which make It possible to teati grod
environmental science despite the lack of equipment. Also, science
has the potential to Improve math and language lessons which are
current! aught In Isolation from other subjects.
Tht jicive Investigations and activities led to the formulation of
the ' rles of Integrated units shown In Table I. These units fit Into
cur At and proposed course patterns.
84
83
DIAGRAM I
SCIENCE TOPICS NOMINATED BY
SOLOMON ISLANDERS AS BEING
APPROPRIATE TO THEIR SOCIETY
Topics arrangec) to ftK<>w intt^relationthipt
80
84
TABLE I Proposed Environmental Science u'^ ts for Solomon Islands
trainee teachers*
SEMESTER IWTESftATED HALF SEMESTER UNITS
*1 Population Studies 1 People and Materials
*2 Population Studies 2 People and Energy
3 Common Animals People and Water
4 The Life of Plants Air, Wind and Weather
5 Fire, Plants and Soil People and Foresti;
6 People and Mangroves Ocean, Reef, and Beach.
* Foundation courses for both teacher and technical trainees.
General Structure of the Units
Each unit is Integrated to Include:
- bas^c scleiice understandings
- science process skills
- basic language and math skills
- science teaching methods (semesters 3 to 6)
The balance of these components change:^ as the st Jdents proceed
through the cour^.e.
Each unit oa Population, Energy and Materials has a spUal
structure which begins with the Individual and the village community,
National data Is then studied and compared with other Pacific
countries. Global aspects are dealt with last. The other units are
fpore local In their focus but national Implications are dealt with.
Articles from other Pacific countries are Included as reading
comprehension exercises.
The units dealing with ecosystems Include four broad concept
areas :
- the diversity, adaptation, and Interaction of plant and
animals
- people *s utilization of and impact on the system
- conservation and stewardship
how to teach about the ecosystem
Since the Islands differ In both ecology and local language, the
students are required to Individualize their assignments, using local
names for the plants and anImaU of their particular ^-sland. However,
the basic concepts developed and the teaching methods used can be
applied to any ecosystem.
Alternative Units and Coorolnatlon with Other Subjects
Alternative units are necessary to allow for the changes In
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86
85
expertise and Interests of the lecturing staff allocated to teach the
course. For example, units on "People and Shelter," "people and
Transport." and "People and Tools and Machines" could be substituted.
Similarly, with cooperation fro« the Social Science departnent. a unit
entitled "Peopie and Industry" could be developed, "cand Use and Land
Tenure" would be another suitable Envlronnental/Soclal Science unit.
The recent amalgamation of the separate departments of
Environmental Science, Hom* Economics, Agriculture and Health, and
Physical Education should ensure coordination between topics. For
example "People and Forests" should interlock with the agriculture
topic "Subsistence Farming." Similarly "People and Mater" links to
the health topic "Mater Supply and Sanitation."
Teaching Strategies
Emphasis u placed on group activities during excursions and
laboratory sessions. No lectures are given but students are
encouraged to discuss their experiments and observations, producing
written statements which they then record on the board to form a class
nummary. Most activities Involve no more than simple Improvised
equlptisent and may be readily adapted to the elementary classroom.
Discussion of teaching methods Is woven among the activities as
appropriate.
This approach is used to help stuoents develop
skills and confidence In oral and written language
skills and confidence in science process skills
confidence In their own knowledge of the environment
positive attitudes towards workln; wltt* others frtu different
islands
respect for the ideas of others, particularly those of women.
Evaluation and Evolution of the Course.
Subjective evaluation and modification of the units has been
continuous since the work b^gan In 'i983. In sone units pretests were
used to Identify attitudes and Interests of the students and the
concepts that needed development. Subsequent tests and assignments
then Indicates! how successful the teaching strategies had been.
Activities wierfe also evaluated In terms of Initial student response
and how readily students later transferred the activities to the
practice teaching situation. This process of evaluation and change
will need to b(» continued as staff and course structure alter over the
next few years.
Transferability of the Program.
The general model showri In diagram I shcjld be widely applicable,
but the specific elements fitted into the model should reflect the
o
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87
86
actlc'^s taken by the particular culture to obtain basic needs from the
ecosystems accessable to that culture. Consequently, the titles and
content of the Integrated units would need to be altered.
It w^uld also be necessary to evaluate the need for basic
language and maths skills, science process skills, teaching skills and
science content, so that teaching methods could be adapted to mtt the
needs of the students.
Bibliography
OIAHONO. J.H. A Proposed Fortst Reserve System and conservation
Strategy for the Solomon Islands - a Report to the Solomon
Islands Government. 1976
HUGHES. A.V. Central Bank of Solofron Islands Annual Report. 1982
IV. M. Quaye. Eric C. "Towards the Development of Environmental
Literacy In a Developing Country - Ghana." Professor.
Department of Botany. University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast,
Ghana. Africa.
The Improvement of environmental quality Is the ultimate and
significant goal of environmental education. More specifically, this
goal 1s to create a concern that leads to a commitment to preserve or
develop optimum environments and to Improve less desirable ones. Host
Third World societies are gradually becoming aware of the ultimate
threat to human survival of further deterioration In man*s
environment. This threat comes from several Interrelated problems,
the major ones being: (1) the explosive Increase in human population;
(2) the rapid depletion of both renewable and nonrenewabe resources;
and (3) an awesome Increase In man's ability to pollute the
environment.
In some developing countries, solution? to these problems have
not made any significant impact on decreasing the rate of
environmental degradation. This Is a clear Indication that these
countries are not dealing directly with the underlying cause*^ and
long-range Implications of the problems* Instead, most attrition Is
devoted to ways of dealing with the symptons Mther xU?f\ fUe disease
itself.
In Ghana, a K. lf-he?rted atteis^t Is being made by tho Government,
through Its agency, the Env1ronm<jntal Protection Council (EPC), to
Institute programmes to educate the masses on the consequences of
decreasing the quality of the environment. The programmes take Into
account the existence of im systems of environmental education - a
nonformal and a formal system. The nonformal <^ystem, wnlch Is the
Immediate focus of attention, directed at ttie public at large or
particular <:ef""^nts (ta'^get groups) of the general public. The foriral
system, on tht ther hand. Is centered? on teacher-student
relationships through oeclfic curricula <nd Is, ther^rfore. directed
at peof)le receWInc formal education only
87
The ultimate goal of these programnes Is to create a citizenry
that Is environmentally literate. However, being Informed may not
necessarily bring about the desired change 1n attitude or commitment
to Improve environmental quality since behavioral patterns In adults
are mainly directed by attitudes developed In childhood. Awareness of
the youth, therefore, should be the major aim of environmental
education In Ghana and other devcjloplng countries.
The poor state cf the economies of developing countries Is not
the only drawback facing the successful Implementation of
environmental programmes. Equally Important are the eco-soclal
systems and the eco-polltlcs operating In these countries. The
problem of environmental literacy can therefore be Improved If It Is
Integrated Into an overall national progranme. This must be a
"package program." which must take account of the Interrelationships
of soc1o-pol1t1cc<l, economic and technical factors In a systems
approach.
IV. N. Saxena, K.G. "Ecological Implications of Shifting
Agriculture." Department of Botany, P.P.N. College. Kanpur
University, 96/12 Hahatma Gandhi Harg, Kanpur, indU 208C01
The tribal populations of the north-eastern hill region of India
practice shifting agriculture, locally referred to as "Jhum." This
Involves slash and bu n of developing forested commun1t1*»s followed by
mixed cropping for a year or two. The land 1$ abandoned for secondary
succession In order to restore soil fertility until It Is next
cultivated. This Intervening fallow period between the two suctestlve
cropplngs on the same site (Jhum cycle), which was 20-70 years long
previously, has now been reduced to only 4-6 years,
Jhum cultivation varies depending upon the length cf cultivation
cycle. In a plot under a long cycle of 10 years or more, as many as
14 crops may be sown together simply by dibbling and ha vesting at
different times. The crop mixture cons'ists of grain ano seed crops
like Orvza satlv^. Sesawum Indlcum. Zea mavs. Setaria itaMca.
Phas eolus munge, Riclnus communis (also used for rearing T'lkworms).
leafy and fruit vegetables like Hibiscus fu bdarlffa. H- b*«c»s
esculenta, and a wide variety of cucurbits, and tuberous r?ops l^kc
Hannlhot esculenta and C olocasia ant1cor>jre. Tht succs-^ve harvests
of crops not only create additional space for the remaining crops hut
also Improve soil fertility as a result of decay ot left over plant
debris. In the second year of cropping following tiie burn, Sesasniai
indlcum. Mannlnot esculenta and banana along with vegetaMe crops are
preferred to the cereals. Under short cycles of 4-0 years, c:ops like
Sesamum indlcum . banana and vegetable crops are i^h^:*7e'j :ather thars
cereals which give poor yields under these situations (Rawkrishnan et
il. 1981). An In^ortant feature of such a t>'i5d*t'ioi.al ag-1c«ltyrs^
system pertains to mixed cropping which U apiirently an efficicf-t way
of utilizing rapidly dwindling resources tv choosing mutudlly
compatible crops. Furtheriecre, this Agr*:ulcural systf.c involves
88
neither any sort of land preparation nor any fertilizer Input, in
view of the socio-economic problems of the region, the tribals perhaps
try for all their essential needs at one time, and Independently,
probably because of poor inter-communlcatlon.
Ecological analysis of vegetation development following slash and
burn may form a rational basis for evaiuetlng the Impact of shifting
agriculture on structure and function of hill ecosystems, and
subsequently, for arriving at a precise management policy ensuring the
quality of environment. Such an approach becomes also relevant
because early successlcnal species act as weeds owing to their direct
Interference with the planted crops. We present here our findings on
the ecological analysis of shifting agriculture, emphasizing over the
weed problem and the related environmental Issues.
The pattern of vegetation development following the burn was
found to be Influenced by the length of the cultivation cycle (Saxena
& Ramakrishnan, 1984a). Under the short cycles of 4-6 years, where
the disturbance of fire Is more frequent, early succession conformed
closely to the "Initial florlstic composition model" of Egler (1954).
In contrast, the classical "relay florlstlcs model* was found to
operate under long cycles of 10-20 years with a comparatively low
frequency of f^"^e disturbance. Such a difference In the pattern of
vegetation development under short and long cycles may he expected
because under the former situation of highly perturbed commnlties,
"Initial florlstic composition model'' ^.ends to be more successful
(Cornell & Slatyer, 1977) •
When short Jhum cycles of 4-6 yearv are repeatedly Imposed over
a site as Is the case at present, succession gets "arrested" at an
early stage wt^en the coNwinlty Is exclu'>1vely composed of exotic
herbaceous weeds having high reproductive potential (R^Strateglsts) .
In contrast, under long cycles of 10-20 years, these weedy species are
eventually replaced because of str'^ss conditions by bamboos (Saxena &
Ramakrishnan 1984b) and sh^de tolerant herbaceous species with low
reproductive potential (S-slrateglsts) which dominate here ^^axena &
Ramakrishnan l9B2d,b). This change results In the burn being more
^ntense due to heavier fuel load under long cycles compared to thai*
under shorter cycles, A high reproductive potentlel of the early
successlonal species and consequently a high propagule production
during the Intervening fallow period coupled with a low Intensity burn
may account for a high weed population under short cycles compared to
long cycle" of 10*20 years. The success and apparent co-existence
thii^ weeds following the burn may be associated with their divergent
patterns of resource allocation, reproductive and growth strategies,
and differential nutrient uptake and use associated with C3/C4
photosynthetic pathways (Saxena & Ramakrishnan, 1984c). Drastic
alterations In the m1cro*env1ronment caused by these exotic weeds has
resulted in a rapid depletion of germplasm. Many of the orchid
species of Vanda , Dendroblim i ani Cvmb^dlum are In the list of
e'^dangered plants.
The less of nitrogen, which Is the most critical element In the
terre5;tr1a ecosystems of sub-trcplcal and tropical cllmcktes (as Is
90
89
the case here). Is due to rapid nitrification and Intense rainfall on
the steep slopes with sparse crop cover unOer short cycles compared to
the longer cycles. Moreover, shorter cycles of 4-6 years do not
permit adequate recovery In soil fertility, whereas long intervening
fallow periods available under 10-20 year cycles can restore the
soils' fertility to a large extent (Toky & Ranakrlsf lan, 1981).
Thus Jhum cultivation could be sustained provided the cultivation
cycle Is long enough, permitting the adequate recovery In soil
fertility and also avoiding any Invasion of noxious weeds. The
repeated slash-burn of a site at short intervals deteriorates the
environment in terms of both soil fertility and vegetation cover. The
monetary yield gets reduced to nearly half under a 5 year cycle as
compared with a 10 year cycle (Toky & Ranakrishnan. 1981). This Is
obvious due to serious weed and soil fertility problems associated
with shortening the cultivation cycle. The extent of damage to the
ecosystem could be better exemplified by an extrome case of Jhum at
short cycles at Cherrapunji. which Ix one of the areas receiving
highest rainfall in the world. In spite of an exceptionally high
precipitation. It Is surprising to observe general bareness of the
landscape. However, there Is a smali "relict forest" and a few
valleys which are protected from the human interference Indicating
that the climax vegetation of the area could be a rich forest cover.
Agriculture Is certainly an Important land management practice
and It Is perhaps practically impossible to eliminate Jhum from
north-eastern India. It may be mentioned here that Jhum, In fact. Is
a part of the cultural heritage of tribals. Several festivals are
celebrated with various operations of Jhum like cutting, burning and
harvesting. However, this age old practice should be restricted In
view of the critical geographic and climatic conditions of the area;
otherwise modifications are urgently needed In fact, reperc- *ons
of soil erosion caused by shifting agriculture on the steep st due
to heavy monsonic rainfall appear In the form of silting of rivers and
frequent floods In the plains of the sub-continent. It is suggested
that the area could be better exploited for horticulture and forestry
whlrh would piotect the soil from erosion and would also maintain a
rich germplasm. Modern agriculture which Involves large energy
subsidies in the form of land preparation and fertilizer input may
create more problems than it would solve. Since Jhum is a traditional
agriculture adopted as a way of tribal life, int<»ns1ve environmental
educaiion to the largely illiterate and highly conservative tribals is
primarily needed to maintain the quality of environment in
north-eastern India.
Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported b»' the Department of Science &
Technologi/, Oepartment c* Environment, and lovernroent of India under
the "Han and Biosphere" pr' gramne.
90
Bibliography
Clement^, T.Z. "riant Succession Analysis of the Development of
Vegetation." Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication,
1962, pp. 242; 542.
Cornell, j^H. & Slatyer, R.O. Nechanlsms of Succession '^n Natural
Conmunltles and Their Rule In Coimunlty Stability and
Organization. Aw erlcan Naturalist , 1977. vol. Ill, pp. in9«T*44.
Egler, F.E. "Vegetation Science Concepts. I. Initial Florlstic
Composition - a Factor In Oldfueld Veget^.tlon Oevelop^^ent."
.station . 1954. vol. 4. pp. 412-417.
Raroakrlshnan, P.S. tt Toky, O.P. •Soil Nutrient Status of Hill
Agroecosystems and Recovery Pattern af^.er Slash and Burn
Agriculture (Jhum) In North-eastern India. Plan t and Soil . 1981,
vo\ 60, pp. 41-64.
Ramakrl!;hnan, P.S , Toky, O.P., Misra, B.K. & Saxena, K.6. "Slash and
Burn Agriculture In North-aastarn India." Fire > «l wc$ and
Ecosystem Properties . Edited by H.A. Nooney, J.M. Bonnlcksen,
N.L. Chrlstensen, 3.1. Lotan ^ H.A. Relners. United States
Department of Agriculture Forest Service General Technical
Report, 1381, HO-26, pp. 570-584.
Saxena, K.G. ft Ramakrishnan, P.S. "Reproductive Efficiency of
Secondary Successlonal Herbacec jS Populations Subsequent to Sldsii
and Burn of Sub-tropical Humid orests In North-eastern India."
Proceedings from Indian Academy of Sciences (Plant Sciences)
1982a, 91, ^)D. 61-68.
Saxena, K.G. & Ramakrishnan, P.S. "Partitioning of Blomass and
Nutrients Id the Secondary Successlonal Herbaceous Populations
Subsequent to Slash and Burn." Proceedings from Indian National
Science Academy, 1982b, B 48 . pp. 807-818.
Saxena, K.G. & Ramakr^.shnan, P.S. "Herbaceous Vegetation Development
and Weed Potential In Slash and Burn Agriculture (Jhum) In N.E.
India." Weed Research . 1984a, 24, pp. 135-142.
Saxena, K.G. & Ramakrishnan, P.S. "Growth and Patterns of Resource
Allocation In Eupatorlum odorattwi L. In the Secondary
Successlonal Environments Ful lowing Slash and Burn Agriculture
(Jhum)." Weed Research . 1984b, 24, pp 127-134.
Saxena, K.G. & Ramakrishnan, P.$. "C^/C4 Species Distribution
A;iiong Successlonal Herbs Following Slash and Burn In
North-eastern India." Acta Oecoloqia Occoloqia Plantarum , 1984c,
S, pp. 335-346.
Toky, O.P, & Ra>nakr1shnan, P.S. "Cropping and Yield Patterns \n
Agricultural Systems the North-^Eastern Hill Region of India,"
Aqro-- ecosystem . 1981, 7, pp. 11-25.
IV. 0. oellm, N. Saber. "EnvlrOiimental Education In the Arab *"tates:
Issues and Actions." Professor, College of Education,
Aln-Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
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The importance of envlroanental education Is enphasUed at the
present time as one of the niost effective tools to meet the different
complicated problems of the environment. Such prob1e«s arc getting to
be a major threat to the quality of human life on earth. They are
usually referred to "environmental crisis,* and exist In all countries
at various degrees of magnitude and complexity.
In orde; to present the state of environmental education in The
Arab states, it Is necessary to consider some relevant issues of
effect on the programs of rnvlronmental education. A brief historical
review of the conception of environmental education 1$ helpful to
explain the present activities, institutions and actions.
SOME ISSUES TO BE CONSIOfcREO:
The Arab region Is a region where one finds many extremes: (1)
very oil rich countries, and some of the poorest by world measures;
(2) countries with unlimited resources, and others with very limited
ones; (3) some over-populated countries and some under-populated ones;
(4) some of the poor countries have huge amounts of resources, but
untapped, others with limited resources, but we 11 -developed; (5) some
countries have generous supplies of fresh water, others are deprived
of any.
Environmental problems are always the product of the previous
conditions. In the oil producing countries pollutants are of a
specific nature different than pollutants in agricultural countries.
Desertification, although an acute problem in some countries like
Sudan, does not exist in sorje others. Population control Is a hope
for over-populated countries, while rejected by undsr-populatcd ones.
Agricultural resources are we 11 -developed In some countries to
Include every inch of cultivable land; in others millions of
cultivable acres are negleted. In some countries where no cultivable
land exists, very modern technology Is used for agricultural
production which does not depend on land resources.
Industrial production Is developing In countries where man-power
and resources are available; others with no resources and no man-power
are starting Industries with everything Imported.
Some Arab countries have we 11 -developed man-power with an
abundance of scientists, engineers, educators. tec( klans, medical
staff, etc.; others are striving to develop their .^n-pcwer in
d fferent aspects.
It Is of the utr..c-* If oortance to m^^ntlon that all Arab countries
are govern^ by two ma^or religions: Islam and Christianity. Both
religions stress the importance of the environment, the
Interrelationship of its con^onents. and ways and means to protect
It. Religion Is a very ImporUnt force to guide individual behavior.
Most of the Arab countries were occupied by foreign forces for
different periods of time during this century. Their systems of
education were greatly Influenced by the occupiers. Local environment
was never the resource for education, because all phenomena,
specimens, etc. were from the occupiers en«^1ronment. All the Arab
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92
states ^re now Independent, and started working together to develop
their own educational systems to be based on the local and regional
environments. Along with this, some countries with more developed
teaching staff, like Egypc, started to help other countries who did
not have enough staff* Some curricula and textbooks of the more
developed countries were adopted by other Arab countries. This led to
a kind of regional cooperation which is still progressing until now.
The Arab States, with much In common (religion, language, etc),
started to develop structures to strengthen their cultural unity.
After The Arab League was established in 1945, o^^ of Its import;»nt
departments was the cultural department responsiblie for activities in
the areas of education, science and culture- It was felt some years
later that the task was more than a department could handle. In 1970
a specialized organization was established which is The Arab League
Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization (ALECSO). Th^^
organization in The Arab League is comparable to UNESCO in The United
Nations system. The establishment of regional and sub-regional
organizations made it possible for The Arab States to interchange
experts, projects, and above all to plan for some regional projects in
different aspects of education.
Through these organizations many problems of the region started
to be identified, among which were the environmental problems. Added
to this, the convening of The Stockholm Conference in 1972 aroused a
world-wide concern and Interest in managing environmental tasks with
environmental education as one of the most effective ways tc do so.
ALECSO PROGRAM OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
In l! a survey of textbooks used in the Arab countries in the
fields of cience and social studies was conducted by the writer of
this puper. It revealed that very little emphasis was placed on
environmental education. In February of 1972, a meeting was held by
ALECSO in Khartoum, Sudan to discuss aspects of the environment.
Among the topics discussed was the topic of environmental education in
The Arab States. It was recommended that ALECSO ccrry on a program of
environmental educa^^on fnr the different stages of education. An
extensive program wa;» planned and carried out by ALECSO to help
encourage environmental education in schools, univer<;ities, adult
education and for the lUbllc through mass media. It was decided to
plan for all categories at the same time.
The program of environmental education for schools included the
development of a Resource Book for general education which would be a
source of Information treating environmental problems, a guidebook for
teochers, curriculum planners, etc., and curriculum modules for each
•school level. The impact of this program Is felt in many Arab
States. Helping the teachers to build their own curriculum modules
promotes their awareness and helps to plan and carry out successful
environmental education activities. Some countries are now building
their scier.ce curriculum with a '^ore of environmental education.
The EE program for the tertiary level started with the
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93
development of another resource book directed to the higher
1i<:>t1tut1ons ana universities, published through the cooperation of
ALECSO-UNEP. Although this book was not so successful, many colleges
are either developing EE programs for undergraduate and graduate
studen.s, or reconsidering their programs In light of the nted for
effective EE programs.
Realizing the Importance of mass media to environmental
awareness, ALECSO held training courses for newspaper writers, radio
and television experts to develop their acquaintance and awareness of
environmental problems. As a follow up, a monthly bulletin was
published by ALECSO and distributed to all experts of mass media in
the Arab States containing articles and scripts to be released to the
public.
ALECSO started to Initiate efforts to Introduce environmental
education In the programs of teacher education on both t' . pre-servlce
and In-service levels. Many teacher praparatlon Institutions In the
Arab States are now offering courses 1p environmental sciences to
prospective teachers. Concepts and methodologies are also dealt with
In the professional courses and durlrig practice teaching.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOHHtHOATIONS
All the Arab States are aware of the importance of environmental
education as the most effective means to protect the environment.
There are specific Issues which should be considered In planning for
effective programs of environmental education. Such programs are In
different stages of developnwnt In the different Arab States. More
emphasis Is given to the programs of the pre-unlverslty education.
Research Is oeallr.g with different aspects of environmental education,
but more research Is definitely needed In this field. Ntre
researchers are getting Interested In dealing with the different
problems of environmental education and the situation Is Improving.
To plan for effective programs of environmental education In the
Arab States, the following are somt recommendations: (1) Institutions
responsible for leaders training In £E In the region need to cooperate
in planning a strategy, develop programs of EE, and supervise the
Implementation of Its different activities. This could be achieved
through Institutions, ,.g. universities, mass media and professional
organizations. (2) The availability of resource materials Is basic
for developing and Implementing successful EE programs. TMs should
be achieved tnrough International, regional and national efforts. (3)
There Is shortage of evaluative materials for the assessment of
effectiveness of EE prcqrams. It Is suggested to help construct
different types of tests and criteria and help the experts In each
country use It and Interpret Its results. (4) Sub-regional centers
f'jr tE should established to help construct and prepare curriculum
materials, teacning aids, and train personnel and leaders In the
different areas of environmental sciences and technologies. (5)
Research activities should bo planned and carried out cooperatively by
universities and centers In the region. Efforts should be made to
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94
train the necessary personnel for this vital aspect cf environmental
education.
9b
95
IV. P. Simpson, Ph1l1p. "Education Prerequisites for Integrating
Conservation and Development In New Zealand." Commission for
the Environment, CPD House, 108 The Terrace, P,0, Box 10 241,
Wellington, New Zealand.
Introduction : the challenge
An educatloral challenge facing the people of New Zealand
(Indeed, all peoples) Is how to put modern ecological theories and
social aspirations Into practice. The challenge Is both '.ramedlate and
long-term: Immediate because of the high demand for existing (often
already depleted) resources and an existing political, social and
economic order which Is always a little behind prevailing needs; and
long-term, because of the need for present-day youth and future
generations to le3rn how to cope w^th new and unknown opportunities
and restrictions.
The fundamental message of ecological understanding is that
humans depend on natural ecosystems, the material and non-material
benefits of which are constrained within limits imposed by natural
processes. Parallel to this is the recognition of social needs to
ensure adequate quality of life for each individual: for example,
adequate participation in decision-making, peaceful coexistence, and
equity amonj different elements of society, particularly in terms of
race and sex. An awareness that each natural resource has different
values for different people has also emerged. These rights and needs
point to the fact that environmental awareness is but part of an
interrelated package of Issues. The great social movements of our day
- for peace, for a healthy environment, for nature, for racial and
sexual equality and identity - seek to change personal attitudes which
over time have become enshrined in the social, political and economic
policies of the day. Tbe exciting, but radical, task of environmental
education is to unravel the complex origins of these standards so that
individuals become capable of and motivated towards resolving the
social problems they cause. To some, the challenge calls for a
"paradigm shift" in philosophy; to others, a gradual evolution of
a}.prnpr1ate values and understanding is already under way.
The New Zealand Problem
In many respects New Zealand is a country with a high standard of
living and high environmental quality. Yet, there are many problems.
Modern New Zealand society has inherited a legacy of colonialism which
Involved deep dislocation of the indigenous Maori people in terms of
land, language and values. The narrow vision of colonial resource
exploitation has been passed on so that some resources have become
depleted, and a pattern of nonsustalnable use gets repeated.
Contributing to the need for special care in managing resources are
New Zealand's small size, the unstable, sensitive nature of Its
landscape, changeable weather, endemic species Incapable of
adaptat-ion, and rapid expansion of pests in the inland environment.
Administrative and legal structures established for early phases of
New Zealand's development can be m-adapt3d to deal with modern
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problems and aspirations, and can lack the perceptions engendered by
centuries of habitation. A fractured organisational basis for
managing the many aspects of the environment Is particularly
characteristic (OECO, 1981). The cost of servicing a high demand for
resources is Increased by geographical Isolation, which also Imposes
dependence on an International economy beyond local control. New
Zealand shares many of the problems of other "western" countries, but
also has a number of problems uniquely its own.
Integrating Conservation and Development: what does It mean?
In broad terms the Integration of conservation and development
means matching the social aspirations of New Zealanders with the
ecological realities of our resource base. Wore specifically, this
Includes Identifying the principles on which resource use should be
based. To a considerable extent these principles are based on
scientific - especially ecological - understanding, applied to human
needs. The needs are both material and non-materlal , and the
resources both living (renewable) and non-living (non-renewable).
The approach Is a superb example of holism, one of the
fundamental tenets of ecological science. In this connection It Is
Instructive to consider the history of ecology, so ably reviewed Dy d1
Castrl (1981;. Understanding this history (both on a global scale,
and 1n Its particular expression In New Zealand [Simpson, 1983])
should become a specific aim of environmental education In New
2ealf.nd. A detailed consideration of the underlying principles Is the
means by which the Issues, gaps In understanding and necessary
priority actions can be Identified. A national environmental
education strategy Is one of these action requirements.
New Zealand Conservation Strategy Principles
The task of Identifying the components of an environmental
education strategy has been greatly assisted by Identification of the
conservation strategy principles. They Identify not only the broad
content of an appropriate education strategy. Including who should be
educated, but also some of the ethical considerations essential to
education. For example, the explicit view that conservation and
development are Integrated parts of a whole tnat operate In concert
rather than opposition Is, In Itself, a paradigm shift In awareness.
The New Zealand Strategy recognizes five principles, stated
simply as the:
1. protection of ecosystems and ecological processes
2. preservation of genetic diversity
3. sustainable use of living resources
4. wise use of non-renewable resources. Including a transition
to renewable resources where possible
5. proteclon of natural resources for non-material needs ^Nature
conservation Council Technical Committee, 1981)
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97
Each of these principles contains some elements which are broad,
even global, In scale, end ether elements which are specific to New
Zealand. Of particular significance to New Zealand Is Principle 5 -
protection for non^-nu M needs - because attention Is hereby drawn
towards the unity bet^ environmental and other social concerns, and
the significance of pe' inal values and personal skills - such as
problem clarification and values clarification - in resolving these
concerns.
Environmental Education Strategy
In order to facilitate the principles of the Conservation
Strategy specific alms, target audiences and programmes for each
audience need to be Identified. One possible set of alms for New
Zealand is as follows:
1. To foster the development of an environmental ethic
appropriate to Mew Zealand. This Includes such aspects as
sensitivity tc the non-human aspects of environment and to
Muorl and pakeha (western) values, developing a sense of
place and heritage, awareness of the need for stewardship,
and 1ear»"1ng assertive personal *"ehav1our.
2. To develop an understanding of environmental Issues and the
ability to resolve them. This Involves a knowledge of
ecology (particularly nature/culture Inter-relatlonshlps) ,
New Zealand resources and history. It Involves developing
skills appropriate to values clarification, problem-solving,
decision-making and understanding the future.
3. To motivate a desira to act to resolve environmental Issues.
This Involves developing a working knowledge of how decision:
are made, and how to Influence them through appropriate
actions .
The triad, ethic - understanding - action, serves as a rrjdel
which could be applied to any specific element of an environmental
education course; for example, to an environmental ^^sue such as the
sustainable use of fisheries.
Target Audiences
Not all elements of society need environmental education of the
same kind, or to the sane degree. For Instance, there already exists
an extremely well developed public environmental lobby which has been
largely responsible for the progress that has already been made In
awareness and advancement In legislation and Tanagement. Specific
target audiences Include:
1. Existing decision-makers whose decisions affect
environmentally sensitive areas. These Irr I f1e ooMcy-makers
(politicians, staff of government departments, local bodies
and private companies) and resource mand^(^rs (such as
farmers, fishermen, contractors and t\n\r advisors).
2. Youth, both In and out of school.
3. The general public, as parents (csp-^ 'ally mothers),
consumers and voters.
98
Priorities for Target Audiences
This is a ver> large area for investigation which cannot be fully
developed here. One priority, identified by a conprehensive New
Zealand research programme (Scott, 1983), is formal education in
schools. Scott reaches the following conclusions:
1. Ther<» is excellent opportunity within school curriculum for
infusing environmental education without new and specific
subjects. Science and geography arc particularly well
developed, although there is a neeJ to deal mre explicitly
with environmental issues.
2. The two greatest shortcomings are In values clarification and
motivation of action to hc^p resolve environmental problems.
3. Teacher training is inadequate for dealing with value-laden
issues.
4. Teaching recources, in the form of .ssues-specif ic lesson
plans which deal with values, are inadequate.
There is little doubt that these sarne limitations apply to
training and education for all target audiences.
Conclusion
The main conclusion is to be drawn concerning the education
prerequisites for integrating conservation and development in New
Zealand is that the main area needing attention lies in personal
development: how to deal with underlying ethical considerations,
understanding the complex origins of environmental Issues, feeling
competent to resolve conflict, being able to identify appropriate
actions and motivate a personal desire to be involved in resolving
problems. My central thesis is that these areas can be approached
rationally using known skills. The educational challenge is to
personalise, and ultimately societize, the considerable scientific and
social knowledge which exists in New Zealand culture. The prospects
are very exciting, but things wi II not happen sufficiency fast by
themselves. Th3 single greatest need is the training of teachers.
References
di Castri, F. Unesco Courier 1981, 1981.
Nature Conservation Technical Committee. Integr ating Conservation and
Development: A Proposa l for a N? if Z .alar.d Conservation
Strategy . Wellington: Nature Ccnservation Council, 1981.
OECO. Environmental Policies in New Zealand . Paris: OECO, 1981.
Scott, Graeme. "Environmental Education in Existing Classroom
Practice.** Unpublished report, Centre for Resource Hanage.nent,
University of Canterbury, 1983.
Simpson, Philip. * A History of Ecological Thinking in New Zealand."
Unpublished paper presented at the Conference on History of
Science in Wellington, New Zealand, February 1983.
99
IV. Q. Slocombe, 0. Scott. "International Environmental
Campaigns-Case Studies and Discussion." School of Community
and Regional Planning, The University of British Columbia,
6333 Memorial Rd., Vancouver, B.C.. Canada, V6T 1W5
The objective of this paper Is to present a framework for
comparing and discussing environmental campaigns, to apply this
framework to five Internationa i environmental campaigns of the last
century, and to draw some conclusions theref^^om for the conduct of
environmental campaigns, such as the World Campaign for the Biosphere
(Anon., 1982; Davis, 1983). , Finally comment Is made on the relatlv.)
Importance of substance anrf process, education and activism. In such
campaigns .
The Framework
One needs, first of all, to Identify the campaign one Is
referring to. A short descriptive title, the campaigns dates, Its
Initiators and their main location are recommended for this purpose.
Then one wants to consider the campaigns preparation - Its
problem definition. Its rationale for Intervention, Its preparatory
process, and Its goals. Also to be considered Is the campaigns
Implementation - its form, scope, level of operation, actors,
resources, methods, and mandate. Finally one needs to evaluate the
campaign - In terms of Its effects. Its adaptlveness and Its follow-up
efforts.
The Cise-Sttidles
Five liiternatlonal environmental campaigns have been chosen as
case-studies. Each Is summarized here In a paragraph and the main
referej^ces for each given.
1 . The Plumage Trade
Bird feathers first became fashionable on hats about 1875; they
dominated millinery styles after 1880. hany species from all over the
world were utilized but especially hard-hit were gulls, terns, herons
egrets and Ibises from the New World. In London the Society for the
Preservation of Birds (SPB) was founded In 1889, In the United States
the American Ornithologist's Union (AOU) became Involved In the Issue
In 1884, while the Audobon Society was founded In 1886 (re-organized
In 1896). All were primarily concerned with stopping the millinery
trade. The U.S. Lacey Act was passed In 1900, and by 1905, 33 states
had passed complementary legislation on the plumage trade. In 1913
the U.S. Federal Tariff Act, with plumage trade prohibitions, was
passed. In England the U.K. Board of Trade passed an Importation of
plumage regulation In 1917 and, finally. In 1921 a Bill on the
Importation of Plumage was passed (Doughty, 1975, Welker, 1955)
2. Operation Tiger
Although the decline of tiger populations had been noticed as
long ago as 1940 It wasn't untM tlie late 1960's that serious attempts
were made to assess and remedy the problem. Considerable "behind the
scenes" work by Guy Mountfort In Europe and Asia led to the launching
of "Operation Tiger" by the World Wildlife Fund (HWF) In September,
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100
1972. In 18 months L800,000 (U.S. $1.7 m11 Hon) was raised through an
extensive and Innovative public campaign. Soon the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (lUCH) was conducting scientific
re!>earch on the species and India (and later other countries) were
setting aside reserves for the tiger. By 1980 over 40 nature reserves
In 10 countries had been established and the tigers* population was
estimated at about 6400 Individuals of six races (up from 5000 In
1970). (Mountfort. 1981).
3. The Club of Rome
The Club of Rome was the brainchild of Aurello Peccel In the mid
1960*s. He Joined with Alexander King to organize Its founding
meeting In Rome In April, 1968. There a handful cf people agreed to
continue, and to found the Club of Rome; a "non-or^anlzatlon" of
selected Individuals
concerned with the well-being of mankind as a whole,...
future-oriented In Its thinking. . .and. . .necessarily [taking]
Into account the Incongruities of the human condition, 11s
values and goals, both actual and desirable. If the species Is
to survive. (Peccel and King, 1977).
After two years of globe-trotting and meetings the Club's series
of reports on "The Predicament of Mankind" was begun. Today, as
Alexander King succeeds Aurello Peccel as the Club's president. Its
structure and emphasis appear to be changing (Horgan 1984) - not too
surprlzlngly In view of some earlier soul-searching (Lazslo, 1977;
Carlson, 1977; Peccel, 1977).
4. The Northwest Atlantic Seal Fishery
Sealing In the northwest Atlantic (malniy for harp seals) has
been taking place since the early 18th century. Production peaked In
the 2nd quarter of the 19th, and again In the 20th century. The hunt
was first brought to public attention by a 1964 Canadian Broadcasting
Corporation (CBC) documentary. Soon thereafter Brian Oavles, later to
found the International Fund for Animal Welfare, became Involved on
the side of the seals; In 1976 Greenpeace appeared on the scene. From
the beginning there was strong foreign media, conservation group, and
pubTrc Interest In the subject - and stopping the hunt. 1977 was the
year of the protests, B. Igltte Bardot's visit, and Paul Watson's
debr»^le on the Ice. In 1978 France banned the Import of sealskins
from toe hunt. By early 1983 several other EEC countries had also
banned such Imports and In Octobe*^ 1983 an EEC directive was Issued
banning Imports of harp and hooded seal pup products. In June 1984
the Canadian Federal Minister of Fisheries appointed a Royal
Commission to look Into all aspects of Canada's sealing fishery
(Bonner, 1982; Colsh, 1979; Holt and Lavlgne. 1982; miscellaneous
press reports).
5. The World Conservation Strategy
Initial discussion of the need for a strategic approach to world
conservation took place within lUCN as early as 1969. Plans for the
actual development of a World Conservation Strategy (WCS) were
Initiated between lUCN, WWF and the United Nations Environmental
Programme (UNEP) In 1975. Four official drafts, various Intermediate
drafts, each submitted to the lUCN membership and nearly 1000
102
101
scientists and other advisors. Intervened before the co-ordinated
launch of the WCS In 35 countries on March 5,1980. By August 1983
some 32 countries were at various stages of evolving national
conservation strategies (NCS), and the potential of state or
provincial conservation strategies was beginning to be explored. In
November 1983 an expert workshop on NCS formulation was held In
Geneva; a conference on the Implementation of the WCS Is being planned
for Ottawa In 1986 (Talbot, 1980, lUCH Bulletin, LSupplements) .
Discussion
All fWe of the above campaigns could be called successful, but
they achieved very different forms of succe:>s by rather different
routes. Some of the points to be drawn irom the analysis of th»se
campaigns follow.
Preparation and organization before launch appear to pay off In
terms of faster results after Uunch. A campaign with a broad and/or
strong base of support similar advantages.
An easily stated roblem, and clear-cut goals and objectives,
greatly simplify the gaining of popular support for a cause. The
greater the geographic and taxoc jmic scope of a problem the more
difficult It Is to solve the problem through a campaign (although It
may be easier to raise public concern). The greater the scope of the
problem the more Important It 1s for the resulting campaign to be
directed at decision-makers as well as the public and to aim for
Indirect (e.g. trade controls) as well as direct (e.g. nature
reserves, plant closures) actions.
All these campaigns underscore the power of organizations and
networks, even when started by only a single individual, to <nove a
campaign along. All these campaigns underscore the Importance of
having large resources of nwney, people and expertise, In order to
bring a campaign to a successful conclusion. And this, of course. Is
where an organization (and an organizer) are most useful.
Correspondingly these resources need to he expended In a mult1- faceted
campaign that Includes research, publication, publicity, education,
negotiation and even confrontation.
A successful campaign will likely combine effects on the public
with mandated changes, creation of new Institutions with the creation
of new frames of mind and thought.
The campaign must be "adaptive*, ready to take advantage of
unintended effects or to change tactics when necessary. And finally
campaigns must engage In follow-up activities, whether that 1s 60
years of different activities In the case of the RSPB and Audubon
Society, or the very useful Information supplements published by lUCN
about the WCS.
Conclusion
From the foregoing It should be clear that successful
International environmental campaigns are complex, multl^-faceted
organizations Including many different activities. They require
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attention to both matters of substance and of process ; and to the fact
that both education gua education, and activism may not only both be
necesiary but. In the long run, have similar results.
Bibliography
Anon. Declaration: "World Canval^jn for the Biosphere." Environmental
Conservation , 1982, 9(2), 91-2.
Bonner, w. Nigel- "Seals and Man: A Study of Interactions," Seattle:
University of Washington Press, 1982, pp* 170*
CerUon, Michelle* "Public Feedback for the Club of Rome," Goals 1n a
global cowminlty (Laszlo, E. and Blerman, J. eds), 1977, New
York: Pergamon, 1, pp. 335*
Colsh, E. Calvin. Season of the Seal: the International Storm Over
Canada's Seal Hunt . St. John's, Newfoundland: Breakwater,
1979, pp. 296.
Davis, Craig B. The World Council for the Biosphere/International
Society for Environmental Education. Environmental
Co nservation , 1983. 10(4), 354-5.
Doughty, Robin W. Feather Fashions and Bird Preservation: A Study
In Nature Protection . Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1975, pp. 184.
Holt, Sidney, & Lavlgne, D. "Seals Slaughtered - Science Abused."
New Scientist . 1982, 93) 1296), 636-9.
Morgan, Denis. "Club of Rome Chooses New President." Toronto: Globe &
Mail, May 28, 1984, pp. 1-2.
Laszlo, Ervin. "The Club of Rome of the Future vs. the Future of
the Club of Rome." Goals in a global community . (Laszlo, E. &
Bierman, J. eds.), 1977, New York: Pergamon, 1, pp. 33^^,
Hountfort, Guy. Saving the Tiger . New York: Viking Press, 1981,
pp. 120.
Peccei, Aurelio. The Human Quality . Oxford: Pergamon, 1977,
pp. 214.
, & King, A. Foreward. Goals for Mankind . (E. Laszlo et al.).
New York: Pergamon, 1977.
Talbot. Lee M. "The World's Conservation Strategy." Environmental
Conservation . 1980, 7(4), 259-68.
Helker, Robert Henry. Birds and Men: American Birds in Science. Art
Literature, and Conservation. 1800-1900 . Cambri dge : Be 1 knap
Press, 1955, pp. 230.
IV. R Smyth, J.C. "The World Conservation Strategy and Public
L»1ucation: An Investigation of Structures." Department of
biology. Paisley College of Technology, High Street, Paisley,
Renfrewshire, PAl 2BE, Scotland.
An Investigation of Structures
In the last sentence of her last book 'Progress for a Small
Planet* Barbara Ward described the inescapable physical
interdependence between man and environment as the chief new insight
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of our century. Two sentences earlier she Identified humanity as
constituting the only insoluable problem to achieving a balanced and
conserving planet, as indeed many others have done. Those entences
are quoted by Brian Johnson in his contribution to the response by the
United Kingdom to the World Conservation Strategy. One mic»:.': fairly
regard WCS and the further constructive documents which it has
stimulated as the most promising response to the problem, prepared as
they have been through widespread international discussion.
To be widely successful practical remedial actions call for the
modification of human behaviour on a global scale, not just of
decision makers and environmental intervenors but of the general
public whose lives wiT. be altered thereby. This is primarily the
task of educators, to provide people with the knowledge and
understanding, skills and attitudes consistent with the new
environmental ethic which achievement of WCS objectives demands. If
this seems an impossible target, one can at least reflect that the
environmental problems to be resolvec are products of the very rapid
adaptability of human behavior (in contrast to other processes of
natural change) and that this same speed, if properly directed, might
save the day.
Relating conservation to education has not hitherto been easy
except 1n a few special contexts. Conservation has itself evolved
fairly quickly from more restricted ideas of preservation and is still
apt to be regarded as an attempt to maintain the exotic and the
picturesque at the expense of measures which might relieve m^re
obvious immediate problems of poverty and malnutrition, of
unemployment and boredom. The objects of consevatlon also vary
confusingly between different promoters - nature and natural
resources, landscape quality, historic buildings, works of art,
standards of living, population control are only a few of the things
which different people think of when they use the word. To those
especially who live and work in socially and environmentally deprived
urban industrial areas it is difficult for conservation to be made
both clear In its objectives and relevant.
By founding the Strategy on the most fundamental objectives -
maintenance of ecological lif e-^support systems, iriaintenance of genetic
diversity and sustainable use of species and ecosystems for
development - its authors have given conservation a rpjaning which
underlies all the diverse Interpretations, Such concepts pose severe
problems for the educator, however, who can only hope to present them
convincingly in terms of the familiar experience of his students.
Two other features of WCS constitute important progress in the
presentation of conservation to the public. One is the recognition of
human society as a part of the system to be conserved and as a result
the severe human needs which so often have been treated as a separate
and conflicting set of problems. For education one difficulty of this
1s that educators trained to handle the complex issues of ecological
conservation are rarely skilled in the equally complex and vice
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104
versa. V this difficulty Is to be no more than temporary, some
urgent revisions are needed In the education and training of
educators. The other critically 1ii^)Grtant progressive feature of WCS
Is that It alms to be active rather than reactive, to Incorproate
conservation principles Into planning processes rather than to
struggle with rescue and rehabilitation attempts, a more familiar
function until now. Educators will miss the boat If they cannot
respond quickly enough to do likewise.
As a global strategy KCS necessarily deals to a great extent 1n
generalities. For both practical conservation measures and for the
educational programmes needed to sustain them It was foreseen In the
strategy that the global statement would be followed by Indlvldu&l
national strategies which would apply WCS principles to the particular
conditions ot Individual countries. This has been dofte, or is in
progress, in several countries. The UK launched Its response In 1983,
after an Intensive process of discussion between many different
organisations and Individuals, dividing Its subject matter between
seven groups dealing with Industry, urban, rural, marino and coastal
environments, overseas environmental policy, environmental ethics and
education; an overview report drew together the many ideas and
recommendations from these groups and proposed in addition ten
strategic ways to action. These documents offer more specific Issues
for treatment by educators u the UK but a wide gap still exists
between these Ideas and the practical needs of classroom teachers. A
third tier of responses could help to fill the gap - In the UK, for
example, we now have a national conservation strategy prepared by the
Nature Conservancy Council and also a broadly based Welsh strategy
significantly Including an additional element on Welsh cultural
heritage. More of these responses ere needed however, specific to
activity or geographical areas, and then a fourth tier of response
translating them into action strategies. Including In the case of
education, practical projects and classroom materials, before the gap
Is clofed.
For practical purposes conservation education must be
Incorporated In more broadly defined environmental education. The UK
response to WCS has greatly eased this by Its Inclusion of the urban
and Industrial environment and by the emphasis it places on social and
economic sustalnablll ty. By these means conservation ceases to be
seen as a fringe luxury and becomes a primary objective of
environmental education In any of Its definitions. To carry these
Insights through to practitioner level, however, calls for the
collaboration of representatives from many different academic
disciplines and from a wide range of specialist organisations. This
can b€ done successfully If they are given soir*eth1ng freih to do
together. One difficulty that may have to be overcome, however, lies
In the definition of education. Conservation groups, anxious for
quick responses In public support, may express their educational needs
by the provision of selected Information In a quickly assimilable
form; educators on the other hand place priority on drawing out the
talents of the student for longer-term benefits. The latter focuses
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on the subject, the former on the object. Both approaches have their
roles 1n the adaptation of human behaviour, and are Inter-dependent,
but ought not to be confused. This understood, the role of the
specialist In constructlong teaching programmes Is vital; In the field
of study as complex, varied and far-reaching as this the dangers of
promoting under-researched and over-simplistic solutions to problems
are huge and expert guidance Is essential.
The little working parties of practising teachers and topic
specialists who should meet at the fourth tier of response to put
together practical materials for classroom (or Informal group) use
should find that WCS documents offer as good guidance to potential
subject content as any we have had: selection thereafter Is guided by
the other determinants. Three points are stressed, however: the need
to draw 1n to the treatment of any Issue the perceptions and skills of
as many as possible of the relevant specialist Interests (there are
various ways of achieving this In different currlcular patterns);
because of the variety and complexity of the subject area the need tc
emphasise concepts and approaches, skills and attitudes rather than a
pre-determlned body of knowledge; the need to move outwards from the
familiar In some form.
Course materials must be assessed, both before and after trial,
against the objectives which they have been designed to attain. A
general set of objectives In terms of concepts, skills and attitudes
has been drawn up, but for each particular case this has to be
expanded and adjusted In conformity with the set of main course
determinants for each particular teaching situation. Unit modules are
checked against these for variety and success. Courses may likewise
be checked for coverage, for level and for achievement, and Indeed the
process could be extended to assess the quality of development through
an entire school record.
Will the Inclusion of appropriate topics In teaching programmes -
1f It can be achieved on a sufficient scale - meet the educational
needs of WCS? Probably not: the educational chapter of WCS was
neither so courageous nor so understanding as other parts, and there
1s a need for more radical rethinking of education and for more
extensive changes than are within reach of groups of enthu'jiastic
teachers. These concern the realignment of educational philosophy and
the reconstruction of curricula to take account of a redefined
relationship between man and environment; they also require much
tnought to be given to the environment In which education takes place,
both formal and Informal, and the educational consequences of many
other policies seemingly unconnected. It Is for these concerns that
we need a World Environmental Education Strategy.
Can It all work In educational systems notorious for their
Inertia, and as yet showing little sign of responding convincingly to
warnings of Inadequacy? The changes In life-style Implied by the
recommendations even of the U.K. Response, described as Initially
applicable "flexibly and progressively, without vast Investment,
revolutionary legal changes or unrealistic human responses," will need
a prepared public to receive them. Other moulders of public opinion
107
1Q6
can. of course, do much, but they will be more successful 1f the
ground has been prepared. Carried throughout the recommendations
would lead to an ecologically sounder but very different world.
Convincing presentation of conservation values Is liable to be offset
by large aid Impersonal administrations, paternallstlcally operating
relatively Inflexible programmes In monotonous surroundings, for young
people who see their futures affording little opportunity to work, to
think for themselves or to do anything but nform to a limited
life-style, or explode Ineffectively In rebellion against ;t.
Progress In education will necessarily be part of a wider progressive
change In the system which It serves, and will reflect Its values even
when striving to shape them for the future.
Bibliography
"Conservation and Development Progranine for the UK: A Response to the
World Conservation Strategy." London: Kogan Page Ltd.
Forbes, J & Smyth, J.C. "Structuring Environmental Education - a
Strathclyde Model." Environmentalist s 1984, 4 (3), 196-204.
Johnson. B. An Overview-Resourceful Britain . London: Kogan Page Ltd..
1383.
Strathclyde Environmental Education Group. Environment: A learning
Experience . Scottish Curriculum Development Service, Glasgow.
1984.
IV. S. Sokoloff. Boris. "Australian Aborigines and Environmental
Education." Consultant, Hunter Region, New South Wales
Department of Education, P.O. Box 120. Cardiff, N.S.W..
Australia 2285.
Within the last twenty years Interest In the Aboriginal past has
been nutured by the archaeological discoveries around the continent of
Australia, particularly now that many young Australian trained
archaeologists are working In the field. At the same time a
renaissance of Aboriginal Culture has occurred, as the Australian
Aborigines have shown a renewed pride In their heritage.
Interpretation of their past by Aboriginal people has been bised cn
their lore rather than on the archaeological discoveries. In ^act
there has been some distancing by then, almost as though they are
reluctant to accept the evidence unearthed by non-Aboriginals.
However, both points of view can be accepted to establish the very
lony occupation of the Australian continent by the Australian
Aborigines.
Being a hunter-gatherer, the traditional Australian Aborigine
knew his flora and fauna Intimately. T!,*' seasonal changes were a
familiar part of his/her knowledge. The location and range of the
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wildlife and natural products were exploited In their dally quest for
sustenance. They respected each others rights and property. An
Intricate system of tribal rules, based on the wealth of their ^ore,
had evolved over many generations. The land, and Its natural
products, were irespected because they relied on titem for their
survival and because they were all linked with * <e1r beliefs and their
past^
The Australian Aborigines were not wasteful of the bounty
provided by nature. When harvesting this produce they were mindful of
the future generations. In this way a conservation ethic was
practised. It has been claimed that the Aborigines have had an effect
on the natural vegetation by their use of fire, Bushfires In
Australia are a natural feature, with the plants and animals very much
adapted to their occur'-ence. "Fire-stick farming" was practised by
the Aborigines to encourage the plants to regenerate and wildlife to
breed. Because they depended on, and used natural products, the
Australian Aborigine had a comparatively minimal Impact on the natural
environment. This provides us with a most valid comparative study
between their methods and the profligate use of the natural resources
by the present-day Australian.
A historical perspective can be projected Into an fijivlronmental
education, beginning with the ^re-contact period, protraylng the
traditional lifestyle of the Australian Aborigines. With the advent
of the European contact 200 years ago, the traditional culture of the
Australian Aborigines was affected to an Increasing extent as
settlement spread throughout the continent. An alien approach to the
land was Introduced, which entailed large-scale clearing of the
vegetation and slaughter of the wildlife that the Australian
Aborigines had harvested on a sustained basis for many generations.
Naturally, the traditional way of life w? modified as the Indigenous
people tried to cope with the changed circumstances of disturbed
habitat and loss of free range. Other effects were direct persecution
by the Ihvaders and Introduced diseases.
4Mh few exceptions the newcomers* attitudes towards the original
1nhdi)1tants was an extension of their de:,ire to exploit the natural
resources of this "land of prr^se". Any Impediment to their
exploitation was regarde^i as a i^^lsance at the least, and at worst, a
pest or vermin which had to be subjugated or exterminated. The media
have reflected thin attitude right to the present generation. In the
recent pasc a change of attitude In general community fueling has been
developing. Current publications are presenting a more balanced
viewpoint of the Indigenous people and their place In modern and past
society.
Educational systems In various states of Australia are addressing
the problem of bias and prejudice that has been the norm for so long.
In New South Wales the Department of Education has recently Introduced
a policy on Aborigine Education where teachers are urged to
incorporate An Aboriginal Prespectlve Into their programs or
Aboriginal Studies. These are a'imed at raising the awareness and an
appreciation of the Australian Aboriginal Heritage. That heritage Is
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an Integral part of the environmental education process, witnout an
adequate Input of the Australian Aboriginal Heritage, any
environmental education program Is unsatisfactory.
IV. T. Srinlvasan. S. and O.K. Banerjee. "Environmental Problems of
Developing Countries and Appropriate Solutions Through
Environmental Education". School of Environmental Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi - 110067. India.
In a developing country like India, nearly half the population
are still Illiterate. Industrallzatlon, urbai.lzatlon and
over-population ire the main causes for the different pollution
problems. Among many factors which have contributed to the pollution.
Ignorance and poverty top the list. Two-thirds of the Illness
reported In our country are caused t.' water-borne diseases. Only
one- tenth of the 540.000 villages In India h-ve a protected water
supply. Air pollution Is becomming a serious problem In urban areas.
As per calcjlatlon. ninety percent of Industrial air emissions are
confined to a small number of urban pockets. It would be easy to
Imagine the health hazards these localities face. Many people In
developing countries still use firewood as their only source of
energy. This leads to large scale deforestation. Industries freely
discharge their highly corrosive and toxic chemicals Into the rearby
rivers and streams. Due to the seepage of these chemicals , vast
tracts of adjoining land become sterile. It Is very difficult to
demarcate residential and non-residential areas in cities because of
the noise produced by Industries, road transport, community
activities, ^tc. The pollution Is mainly a human problem and
therefore p u^le should be made aware of the hazards they have to
face. Environmental education In different form? at all levels In
simpler and regional language Is the first and foremost step in
saving the environment from furthec deterioration. After analyzing
the problems of environment In developing countries, a syllabus of
environmental studies suitable for people a> 2ll level' has been
suggested and was discussed.
IV. U. Trant» Anton. "A European Experiment In Environmental
Education". Director, CDVEC Curriculum Development Unit,
Trinity College, Dublin, I'-iand.
The European Conwunlt:* Is generally associated with trade and
economic policies. The Community's envlronm^^ntal policy is less
widely known, despite the fact that It Is now entering its second
decade. The European Community wis In fact among the first
International organizations to respond to the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment In Stockholm in 1972 when a plea
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was made for global action on the environmental crisis. Concern for
the environraentt however, is not something new in the European
Community. It goes back, in fact, as far as 1957, to the Treaty of
Rome aiid could be said to be an essential part of the fundamental
philosophy which brought the Commnity Into being. At the Treaty of
Rome the Member States declared that economic growth was not their
only objective; they were also concerned with the standard and quality
of living of all their people. Keeping the balance between economic
expansion and the quality of life was emphasised again at a summit
conference of the European Community ^n Paris in 1972. This meeting
was to act as the forerunner to the Community's subsequent Action
P'^ogramme for the Environment. In calling for such a programme the
leaders of the Community declared: "It should result in the
improvement in the quality of life as well as in standards of living.
As befits the genius of Europe* particular attention should be giv n
to intangible values and to protecting the environment so that
progress may really be put at the service of mankind." (Commission of
the European Communities, 1976 page 7).
It was in this way that the Community's Action Programme for the
Environment came into being. It was first formally adopted by the
Council of Ministers on 22 November 1973 and was later renewed and
supplemented in 1977 and 1983. Underlying the programme it is
possible to detect two major principles. The first is that man's
relationship to the planet and Its resources should be characterised
by husbandry and good management rather than by unthinking
exploitation. Environmental policy is therefore not a gjoss added to
production and consumption but an effort both to understand and
respect the planet which sustains us and to develop a right
relationship to it. In times of recession and shortage it Is all the
more necessary to do this since the short-term wisdom of
prof it-and-loss does not itself ensure the best use of resources to
meet social needs.
The second principle is that environmental policy should be
designed to increase human welfare by Improving living ard working
conditions. Thus while it is important to be concerned with reducing
the negative consequences of production, consumption and urbanisation,
and with preventative measures to safeguard the future, the ultimate
concern hould be to create the best conditions In which individuals,
families, groups and whole societies can flourish.
Educationa? Implications of Action Programme
Although the Community's Action Programme for the Environment is
not chiefly concerned with specific educational measures, it does have
an overall educational significance. A basic assumption underlying
the entire Programme is that concern for the environment is the duty
of everyone in the Community and that public opinion should therefore
be educated to be more aware of the fact. This point was emphasised
in the first chapter of the original Pro^.amme: "This means that at
all levels continuous and derailed educational activity should take
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no
place so thi»^ every person 1n the Coramunlty becomes aware v^f the
problem and fully assumes his responsibilities towards the generations
to come". (Commission of European Cownunltles, 1977, page 5).
T*ie second version of the Action Programme which was adopted In
1977 contained a more specific educational recommendation - one that
was to assume Increasing Importance In the years that followed* The
Intention was announced of launching a network of pilot schools across
Europe to exchange Ideas and experiences In environmental education,
and to disseminate these Ideas to a wider audience* This plai^ had
been unde. consideration for the previous three years In the
Community's executive « the Cowwlsslon of the European Communities*
Before launching It, however, the Commission decided to test Us
acceptability by undertaking a feasibility study.
Feasib i lity Study
The need for the feasibility study primarily arose from the
ambiguity that surrounded the term 'environmental education' In the
meftiber states of the European Community. Ther? was considerable
diversity between and within the various national educational systems
1n the way in which the objectives and content of environmental
education were defined, and the way in which it was organised whether
as an integrated component of the curriculum in its own right on, or
as a number of separate components within traditional subject
disciplines.
The purpose of the feasibility study was envisaged as being
twofold. The first element would be largely descriptive in that
examples of outstanding practice at upper primary and lower secondary
levels (age group 9/1* years) would be selected from all the members
states and presented as case studies* The second element of the study
would De concerned with the acceptability of the network idea. A
range of contacts would be made with key people working in the field
of environmental education In the member states; and guidelines put
forward for future network activities, such as establishing links
between schools in different countries, animating exchange programmes
and study visits for teachers and pupils, and producing resource
materials in environmental education, both for direct use by pupils,
anri as background information for teachers. In this context the study
was envisaged as a preparatory phase in the establishment of the
network itself.
A report on the feasibility study was presented to the Commission
1n April 1976 (Trant, 1978). The report noted that it was difficult
to define in precise terms environmental education ]n the member
states of the European Coramu*i1ty; it was not a subject like history or
matheme^-lcs but was more like an Ideal or general aspiration.
Nevertheless there were certain similarities in the efforts of the
different member states to develop patterns of environmental
education. Within the age group 9/14 years the following common
trends were identified: a realisation at primary level that active
and child-centered learning was readily realizable through a study of
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the environment; an effort 1n the lower years of secondary schooling
lo Integrate different subjects along environmental themes; and effort
to link the school with environmental facilities, such as museums,
zoos, botanical gardens, etc*; a growing nuiirt)er of research and
development projects In environmental education; a realisation of the
potential for environmental education in such traditional activities
as field studies and outdoor pursuits; and emphasis on the role of
urban studies as an essential element of environmental education; a
growing awareness of the importance of voluntary organisations, clubs
and action groups which offered young people an opportunity of
Involving themselves directly with their own environment.
One of the main purposes of the feasibility study was to
establish contact with Interested officials 1n the ministries of the
member states. The report stated that In all cases there was
agreement In principle to cooperate In the development of a network of
schools In environmental education for the age group 9-14 years. The
report added a two-fold Ji-stlf Icatlon for developing such a network.
There was first of all tl«e need for an Interaction at Community level
to help Integrate an environmental dimension Into the school
curriculum; most of the ministry officials who were consulted were In
favour of such an Initiative and were av^altlng an official
notification of the Commission's Intentions. Secondly, the proposed
network would be an example of European cooperation In a practical and
meaningful way. If the Community's ultimate aim was to lay the basis
for a united Europe, then a Joint undertaking In environmental
education by all the member states would be a snail but Important step
In that direction.
Structure of Network
After nearly three years preparation, the European Community
Environmental Education Network eventually came Into being In February
1977. The basic Idea was simple: to enable a chosen group of pilot
schools to enter Into meaningful contact with each other. With this
end In view, the Network was given two principal alms. The first was
to enhance the quality of environmental education In the pilot schools
through mutual cooperation and learning from each others' experience.
The second was to collect, test and disseminate environmental
education materials.
The first aim denoted the dynamic nature of the Network. It was
assumed that the pilot schools would be chosen not only because they
had a record of good practice In environmental education, but also
because they were willing to share with and learn from schools from
^ther parts of Europe. In this way It was hoped a rich and varied
picture would emerge of how environmental education was taught In a
whole range of different cultural and geographical surroundings.
Furthermore, the potential for comparative studies would be exciting
since the Network would Include a series of contrasting
env1ronments--the urban and the rural, the coastal and the Inland, the
mountainous and the lowland, and the Industrial and the agricultural.
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The ^nd aim had a seminal implication. The Network would
exist not only for the sake of the pilot schools, but for other
schools and institutions. It would have a responsibility to preach
the gospel of environmental education in the highways and byways of
Europe and to seek to influence not only the educational systems but
the general public as well. It was primarily expected to do this
through the dissemination of environmental materials. This brief,
however, was to be interpreted widely; the materials could be
audio-visual as well as print and the vehicles of transmission could
include press, radio and television as well as the more traditional
journals and hand-books.
When it came to a consideration of the term "environmental
education" the Network adopted a pragmatic approach. It did not seek
to define In exact terms the meaning of environmental education; that
was considered to be the prerogative of each member state. The
Network, however, offered a simple and practical guideline, which It
was hoped would help to produce case studies of environmental
education in action. Singly stated, this was that In the development
of project work H was envisaged that environmental education would be
interpreted broadly, as taking into account the different cultural
background of the pupils and involving disciplines of both the social
and natural sciences.
The responsibility of coordinating the activities of the Network
was entrusted by the Commission to the Curriculum Development Unit,
Dublin. The Curriculum Development Unit was established In 1972 by
the City of Dublin Vocational Education Comnittee (CDVEC) and is
managed jointly by the CDVEC, Trinity Colle^je, Dublin and the Irish
Department for Education. The Coordinating Team keeps in contact with
all members of the Network and facilitates the inter-communication
which is necessary for the dynamic development of the project. An
advisory committee, composed of officials from the Commission of the
European Communities, representatives from the member states (national
experts) and members of the Coordinating Team, Is responsible for
oversetin<j the progress of the Network ar.d advising on all policy
matters. The national experts also play a vital role in their own
countries in supporting the activities of the pilot schools.
The Network so far has had two phases: primary and secondary.
The primary phase, comprising 29 pilot schools, lasted from 1977 to
1982 and catered for pupils in the age ranye 9-11 years (later
extended upwards in some member states to 14 years and downwards in
otfiers tc 4 years). The secondary phase, wh^ch comprises 28 pilot
schools and caters for the age range 14-19 years, began in 1982 and is
scheduled to finish in 1986.
The Network in Action
The purr^ose of the Network could be summed up as an effort to
develop a ' ystem of communications through which ideas about
environmental education can be generated and disseminated throughout
the European Community. The two basic a^.ms emphasize this purpose and
Over the years a cownunicatlon system has in fact been built up
114
113
through translating these alms Into operational objectives. The
objectives have been realised through such concrete activities as
school projects on agreed themes, visits between teachers and pupils,
the publication of newsletters and various teacher hand-books, visits
to schools by the coordinating team, and teacher seminars. These
objectives were devised on the first occasion that the teachers met
each other. In Dublin, In June 1977 and they remained the guidelines
for all the NetworV^s activities during the subsequent years*
The most Important aspect of these objectives was the amount of
personal Interaction they brought about. The Network was primarily a
network of people who agreed to undertake together a journey of united
exploration. To do this, they had to meet each other and their
meetings were the high points of the Network's history.
Future of the Network
At the beginning of the article we showed how the justification
for the Network lies In the Community's Action Programme for
Environment. The third edition of the Prograraro**, which was adopted In
February 1983, takes a long-term view of environmental action.
Recognising that the times are hard. It nonetheless states
categorically that "environmental policy Is a structural policy which
must be carried out without regard to the short-term fluctuations In
cyclical conditions In order to prevent natural resources from being
seriously despoiled ano to ensure that future developr^ent potential Is
not sacrificed." (Commission of European Communities, 1983, page 4.)
Indeed, the Action programme sees Itself as contributing significantly
towards a solution to the Community's major problems In the
socio-economic sphere, especially In creating new jobs through the
development of key Industries which are either less polluting or use
few^r non-renewable resources. As a recent Comnilsslon Publication
expressed 11: "ecology Is nothing other than properly thought out
long-term economic^." (Commission of European Communities, 1984. page
82.)
It Is In this context that the future of the Network will have to
be situated. Just as the Action programme sets Itself the goal of
ensuring that an environmental dimension U Included as an essential
part In all socio-economic thinking and planning throughout the
Community, so the Network should seek to give a lead in Introducing
environmental education as a necessary component at all levels of the
educational systems of the member states. This Is an ambitious aim
but one that Is In line with what the European Community stands for.
In this regard It Is appropriate to let the Comlsslon have the last
word:
"In 25 years the European Community has gone through many crises but
also recorded major successes. Education policy has not escaped the
controversies, in the future, far more than at present. It will be
necessary to view this policy within a broader framework, against the
background of the fields In which the Community pursues an active
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policy and from which It will receive new stimuli. In this way n
will have an opportunity to be more effective at the European 1s?vel."
(Coraralsslon of the European Communities, 1982, page 27.)
References Cited
Commission of the European Communities. The Europea n C^rHtnunlty's
En vironmental Policy . Luxembourg: Office for CiMclal
Publications of the European Communities. 1976.
Commission of the European Communities. Official Journal of the
European Communities . Luxembourg: Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities. 1977.
Commission of the European Communities. An Education Policy for
Europe . Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the
European Conrounltles. 1982.
Commission of the European Communities. Official Journal of the
European Comraunltles . Luxembourg: Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities. 1983.
Commission of the European Communities. Ten Years of Community
Environment Policy . Luxembourg: Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities. 1984.
Curriculum Development Unit. A Summary Analysis of the Views of the
National Exoerts . Dublin: COVcC Curriculum Development Unit.
Trinity College, Dublin. 1979.
Curriculum Development Unit. Recreation and the Fr Mronment .
Dublin: O'Brien Educational. 1980.
Curriculum Development Unit. A Synthesis of Envi- onmental Education
P rogrammes carried out in the European Comffjnity Environmental
Education Network . Dublin: CDVEC Curriculum Development Unit,
Trinity College, Dublin. 1981.
Curriculum Development Unit. Integrated Science and Environmenta l
Education . Dublin: CDVEC Curriculum Development Unit, Trini'ty
College, Dublin. 1983.
Curriculum Development Unit. Report on the Annual General Seminar fcr
Teachers and Experts. Deventer. Netherlands. 12-17 June 1984 .
Dublin: CDVEC Curriculum Development Unit, Trinity College,
Dublin. 1984.
International Union for the Conseryation of Nature and Natural
Resources. Final Report of International Working Meeting of
E nvironmental Education in the School Curriculum . Morges
lUCN. 1970.
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Trant, Anton. Environmental Education 1n the Age 6roup 9-14 Years 1n
the European Conmunltles . Luxembourg: Office for Official
Publications of the European Cofiwunitles. 1978.
IV. V. Tribe, David. "The Role of the Gould League of New South Wales
In Environmental Education In Australia." Deputy Principal.
Mosman Primary School » Cromer, N.S.W., Australia.
The Gould League of New South Wales (NSW) Is a semUgovernmental
body working under the auspices of the NSW Department of Education
amongst teachers and pupils in schools. Through Its orgaiiUatlon, the
Gould League gives schools practical as'^lstance and support in
developing environmental education. The Leaguers history and growth
make an Intt esting story for all environmental educators to read and
reflect upon.
Historical Background
During the early years of settlement In Australia, stories of
strange birds and other animals were carried by sailors to people of
other lands. Occasionally, people would make a sketch of a bird or
animal that they thought particularly interesting. However, no
complete records were made until much later. It was not until 1839,
after settlement had been made on the western shores as well as the
eastern seaboard, that a careful and detailed study of the wealth of
Australian wildlife was begun.
This work was undertaken by an Englishman, John Gould, and his
wife Elizabeth. They arrived In Australia In 1838 and In the short
space of two years, these hardy pioneers, aided by collectors and
explorers, went out Into wilderness bush and brought back records of
new species. They made sketchings and paintings of no less than 681
different kinds of birds. When Gould arrived In Australia, the
continent was scarcely more than a name but when his book on the Birds
of Australia was completed In 1850, t -e name was so familiar that the
discovery of gold immeolately placed It 1n the forefront of the
younger nations.
About 70 years later. In 1909, the Victorian Education Department
established the Gould League of Bird Lovers to honour John Gould enc*
his work. On the 22nd of Octobe , 1910, In Wellington, NSW, two
teachers, Edward Webster and Waiter Finlgan, whilst fitting In the
shade of trees In the local school playground discussed their concern
about the endangering of native bird life. They felt that something
must be done. Therefore, on this day the New South Wales Gould League
of Bird Lovers came Into being to perpetuate the name of 3ohn Gould
and to encourage teachers and pupils toward an active Interest In the
study of our native birds.
Within a short time this organization spread throughout New South
Wales with the formation of branches In almost ev^ry school. Each
branch was encouraged to carry out practical activities to preserve
and protect bird species.
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In 1936 the Junior Tree Wardens League was formed. This
organization was slmlla? to :hat of the Gould League, Its role being
to protect and plant trees and native plants.
In 1967 It was decided to amalgamate the two bodies and to cover
a wider range of conservation Issues. The new body was called the
Gould League of New South Wales. The pledge was changed In keeping
with Its new and wider approach to education. "Earth Is our home and
I promise to try to \ beautiful by learning tc understand and
conserve Its soils. • - . water, natural beauty and all Its living
things
Tnis new body now enlarged Its role to one of conservation
education, leading into environmental education In the early 1970s.
Its alms arc:
(1) To develop an awareness of man'i total dependence upon the
Interrelationships operating w1th1n both natural and man-made
systems, and consequently the need for the maintenance of the
optimum benefits for man from these systems.
(2) To develop an awareness of man's total dependence upon the
resources of nature for his very survival and consequently
the need for eff1c1»P* management systems to optimize the
long-term availability of the resources.
(3) To develop an ability for decision making and
self-formulition of a code of behaviour about Issues
concerning environmental quality.
The Gould League's Achievements
Following Its new emphasis, the Gould League of New South Wales
rapidly grew into one of the foremost environmental organizations
working with teachers and children In New South Wales. Its growth
commenced with the formation of the Gould League Advisory Service In
the early 1970s. This service was run In a voluntary capacity by
small group of Gould League Council members. This dedicated group
asslstet^ teachers with Ideas In environmental education, conducted the
League's first Inservlce courses for teachers and commenced the
League's weekly televlsoln segment on the environment. Soon the
growing demands of teacheis could not be mt by this group. In 1974
the Department of Education in New South Wales seconded a teacher to
the position of Gould League Education Officer. The first education
officer. Frank Haddon, established the position. In 1977 the secor^d
education officer, OavlcJ Tribe, was appointed who continued to further
and extend the Influence of the League. In 1981, owing to government
cutbacks, these po'iltlons were amalgamated and a new position of
Environmental Education Consultant/Gould League was created.
From 1974-1981 environmental Education was promoted and
established In a great many schools In NSW. Ro'-Mests for assistance
from teachers were met by school visits, Inservi.e courses, lectures,
demonstrations, assistance In structuring environmental programs and
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resource materials. Content included sensory environmental awareness,
use of school grounds and environs, establishment and use of natural
areas, energy education, urban, natural and marine environmental
education. Students ranged from kindergarten to year 12, colleges of
advanced education, university groups, field studies and community
groups. Interest was maintained through a 10-minute weekly segment on
TV.
Realizing that all the requests for assistance from teachers of
the services of the education officer could not be met, a Gould League
Coordinator network was established all over the state. This network
comprised college and university lecturers, field studies center
teachers, administrativ3 staff in schools, classroom teachers and the
general public. These coordinators have various Gould League
publications and act as an immediate support for teachers requiring
assistance.
Publications
Through support from the Department of Education, the Gould
League is given a grant to produce publications on environmental
education, its regular publication is called the Gould Leaguer which
gives teachers guidelines for ideas in environmental activities and
programming. In addition, the Gould League produces the E Kids
Magazine designed to educate children about the environment. These
publications are given free to schools.
National Conference of Gould Leagues
Realizing that there were other Gould League organizations
working independently in Victoria and Western Australia, the Gould
League of New Soutn Wales organized the first national conference of
Gould Leagues in Sydney, in 1976, where New South Wales, Victoria,
Western Australia, South Australia and Queensland were represented.
Each year since 1076 these annual conferences have continued and have
done much to unite and coordinate the work of the Gould Leagues
throughout Australia. These conferences contributed to the eventual
formations of the Australian Association for Environmental Education.
Celebration of Special Oavs
In order to bring teachers' ano children's attention to specific
environmental events, a number of special days are celebrated
throughout the year. These celebrations are Arbor Day, Wattle Day,
Earth Week, Bird Month and Bird Day. In connection with bird Day, the
Gould League conducts an Operation Birdwatch where children from all
over New South Wales count the number of birds and species found in
their school grounds. This information is returned to the Gould
League office where it is collated and the results printed on maps of
NSW.
Environment Awards
Annually the Gould League presents environment awards to New
South Wales schools for worthwhile projects completed by children in
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schools on any aspect of the environment or environmental education.
The award takes the form of a plaque, suitably engraved.
Cayley Memorial Scholarship
In memory of the ornithologist Neville Cayley who wrote the
famous Australian book entitled "What Bird Is That/ the Gould League
offers an annual Cayley Memorial Scholarship for an approved project
or undertaking, designed to promote wildlife management, particularly
Iri relation to bird life.
Promoting Field Studies Centers
The League helped to establish the field studies center at
Wirrlmblrra, Bargo south of Sydney with the donation of a large sum of
money to build the "J.E. Roberts Memorial Classroom." It also donated
a large sum of money to pay for the erection of a classroom at
Longneck Lagoon Reserve so that the site could be established as the
Longneck Lagoon Field Studies Centre. This centre Is on the edge of
Sydney's western suburbs. Children from all over New South Wales
raised money to fence the whole of Longneck Lagoon area. This was a
positive way to Involve children In environmental education.
Introduction of Environmental Education Ideas from the United States
During 1980 the Gould League hosted Ouane Toomsen, Environmental
Education Consultant for Iowa, In New South Wales to conduct a series
of environmental education Inservlce workshops. A similar hosting
occurred In 1981 with Joseph Cornell of "Sharing Nature With Children"
fame. Both of these people greatly assisted large numbers of teachers
with the latest Ideas and trends In environmental education In the
United States. This Input helped many teachers to develop their own
programs and Ideas for use at the local school and district level.
Gould League Headquarters and Present Input
The Gould League has established its own office, display area,
llbrarjf and conference area as an environmental centre In the grounds
of Beecroft Primary School In Sydney. It distributes and sells the
latest resource material and publications and Is acknowledged as the
leader In promoting environmental education In schools. The centre
has established agencies throughout NSW to promote Its materials,
whilst at the centre Itself a demonstration native garden has been
created for school use.
Annually a competition Is conducted by the Gould League. In 1982
the topic was the "Year of the Tree." This theme was celebrated
throughout Australia as the first year of a lO-^year greening program.
The standard of entries was extremely high, incorporating
contributions from kindergarten to year 12 students and covering a
wide scope of media. The theme for 1983 Is centered around "Our
Endangered Species."
The growth of environmental education Is considered so Important
that ea"^ Education Region throughout NSW has been asked by the
Department of Education to form Its own environmental education
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commUtee, under the chaUpersonshlp of a District Inspector. Thesc
committees are formed by the selection of teachers with outstanding
expertise In environmental education and naturally many of these
people are Gould League coordinators. The committees cater to the
special needs of their own area. During 1982, some have created
suitable resources, prifited news sheets and have led Inservlce
courses. All regions ana activities are assisted by the Environmental
Educ?.t1on Consultant/Gould League and Ideas and expertise are
exchanged at their combined conference.
The Gould League has come a long way In 75 years. Edward Webster
and Walter Finlgan, Its originators, would no doubt be very excited
with the progress that the League has made In Introducing
environmental education to many people. Indeed, environmental
education has not been taught but rather caught. Environmental
education has shown teachers and children that they must have a
stewardship approach to the managing of the spaceship earth, which
they depend on for their very existence.
IV. W. Tuntawlroon. Ndrt. "North-South Dialogue*. Faculty of
Environmental Resource Studies, Mahldol University, 25/25
Phutthamonthon 4, Salaya Nakornchalsri , Nakornpathom 73170,
Thai land.
(No text has been made aval lab
IV. X. Webb, Ooan. "An Australian Contribution to Environmental
Education In Thailand." Kurlng-gal College of Advanced
Education, Eton Rd., Linfleld, N.S.W., Australia 2070.
One of the significant needs In Thailand today Is support for its
programme of environmental education. This paper outlines the success
of nine In-service courses held for teachers at Pranakorn Teachers*
College, Bangkok, during 1981-84.
The Need
"In response to world concern on environmental quality, Thailand
has taken the Initiative In Introducing a new curriculum on
environmental education for the school syster As It Is still In Us
early stages of development. It Is In need o! firm support."
(Conservation for Thailand, 1979.)
"In-service training should be organised for established teachers
who have already graduated, as a matter of urgency." (Conservation
for Thailand, 1979.)
Thailand has a conservation policy. It has a new curriculum, but
Us teachers are unprepared, and resources non-existent. The Thai
teacher would be the first to admit that he has operated for too long
on the principle of "chalk and talk." Thai teachers themselves see
the need to develop the techniques and skills needed to lead field
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120
trips. Especially In elementary schools, but at present they wander
around without objectives— there Is no written resource material for
guidance.
The author visited Pranakorn Teachers College In July 1980 with a
group of students from Kur1ng--ga1 College of Advanced Education.
These studmts were taking their final practice teaching session In
local Thai schools, staying on campus, and helping teach English to
college students and evening adult classes. A seminar on
environmental education was given by the author to the Science staff
of Pranakorn and this was followed by a request to return In 1981 to
conduct an In-service course for local teachers. Pranakorn Teacher's
College takes the responsibility for teacher In-service in Bangkhen
District, Nonthaburl Province and Patomthani Province.
The Response
"The education of teachers In conservation and environmental
Issues should emphasise the Importance of practical work and encoirage
them to adapt their teaching to the local environment," (Conservation
for Thailand. 1979,)
Emphasis In the curriculum Is on the need for conservation, but a
much more basic need was seen to be knowledge and skills In how to use
the local environment in order to understand the basic principles of
ecology and their application to ronservatlon,
A programme was drawn up for a three-day course In July 1981, the
main objectives being:
1. to develop an awareness of the natural environment;
2. to develop skills In observation and recording;
3. to gain knowledge In the basic principles of ecology.
General sensory awareness activities were carried out with
materials In the lecture room, and with materials In the College
grounds. Emphasis was placed on the need for children to use as many
senses as possible in their study of the environment— sight, touch,
SiTiell, and hearing. Simple materials from the local environment were
used In activities designed to develop more rareful observation and
accurate recording.
Four basic principles of ecology were presented as a guide to a
study of any natural environment. First these were applied to a study
of ten m1n1-hab1tats in the College grounds, and then to a major
ecosystem, the rocky shore at Bang Saen, on the Gulf of Slam (a
two-^hour bus trip down south). The four basic principles or concepts
are:
1. the diversity of living things;
2. the physical factors of the environment;
3. adaptations to the environment;
4. Inter-relatlonshlps in the communUy.
At the end of the course, the teachers agreed: "You have Introduced
us to a new way of thinking, a new method of teaching."
The Pranakorn staff members were looking ahead. "We are just
beginning to understand. There are more teachers who need to listen
and learn. Come back In January."
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In January 1982, two courses were held, a three-day course for
elementary teachers, and a four-day course for secondary-tertiary.
This time, the field was expanded tf# Include the man-Mide environment,
and fresh-water studies In ponds of the college grounds.
"For In-school education, more emphasis Is expected to be put on
the Individual's Interaction with his environment, and on responsible
participation In community activities to preserve and improve
environmental conditions.* (UNESCO Bulletin, June 1981.)
Observation of the local human envlronme/it to Include traffic,
houses, food stalls, pollution, temples, schcols, etc., was followed
up by the preparation of posters which told th$ story with polaroid
pictures, magazine cut-outs, and suitable captV'ins.
For the secondary teachers, the f resti-water study was directed at
a comparison of a large clear pond with a small polluted one, with
coll^^'-tlon of samples being followed by tests In the laboratory.
In these two courses, an effort was made to relate activities to
actual local conditions— a local school (whose environs were :;1rap1e
but taught many useful ecological lessons), the fresh-water pond
(common In most school grounds), the streets neerby, and the nearest
major ecosystem, the rocky shore.
Teachers attending these courses cam-» from the Bangkhen
District. They said to the Pranakorn staff, "We need written
resources; the children need field note-books; the teachers need
hand-books. Let us have a workshop to prepare resource liaterlal
The request came agr^n, "will you come back In July 1o help us write
resource materials?**
The Bangken District teachers went back to their schools; they
tried the activities they had seen In January; they enrolled again for
July. 1982.
Two similar workshops were held In July 1982, but the emphasis
was different. The elementary workshop concentrated more on
Integrating the ^environmental material with other subjects In the
curriculum; the secondary workshop aimed to satisfy the requirements
of the science and social studies curricula. Each workshop of nine
days was conducted as follows:
Day 1: (1) How to write a unit.
(11) Setting objectives.
(Ill) Format for worksheets.
(1v) Excursion to :oca1 school.
Day 2: Writing student workbook ar»d teacher's guide on 'Jsing the
School Grounds.
Day 3: Excursion to the rainforest and freshwater creek In Sam Lan
National Park. Overnlgh^: st^y.
Day 4: (Saturday) Initial 2teps In preparation of written maierle'^.
Cay 5: Written materials completed for National Park Study.
Day 6: (1) Student preparation lor an excursion to the Zoo.
(11) Visit to Dusit Zoo.
Day 7: Preparation cf written materials for students and teachers
visiting the Zoo.
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Day 8: Visit to the rocky shore at Bang Sa^n.
Day 9: Preparation of written materials for students and teachers
isiting the rocky shore.
Lack of expertise in the T' ai language made it difficult for the
visiting lecturer to help in the writing sessions; supervision and
correction of manuscript fell heavily on the shoMlders of two senior
Thai lecturers; the young typist worked late each afternoon, the
laboratory attendant was busy in the print-room. By the end of Day 8,
all the participants had three sets of materials to take away, each
set of notes neatly bound and ready for trial runs. Day 9 notes were
to be posted within a few days.
During the closing hours of Day 9, discussions were held on the
procedure for trialling the materials, all trials to be completed by
Decenrt)er when the author returned to Bangkok for a week to obtain a
progress report. In the trials, questions such as the following were
asked:
1. Do the activities fulfill the objectives i
2. Is the degree of difficulty of the activity suitable for the
student?
3. Is the workbook easy to read and understand?
4. What is the estimated time for each activity?
5. Are the proposed activities accurate in their factual content?
In Thailand, a comprehensive in-service programme is conducted
for teachers by The Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science
and Technology (IPST). However, the IPST programme does not help
teachers to relate the curriculum to the actual environment. IPST
trains teachers to follow the curriculum but the Pranakorn Project is
training teachers to be independent by writing their own resource
materials for a number of field trips which will form a pattern for
all other such trips.
Followirtg feedback from the triai runs, the ^ranakorn staff
rewrote some of the resource material during 1983, ard made it
available for ci-culation.
In January 1984, the concept of environmental education for
schools was expanded to include the infant 1evel->two five-day courses
were held with integration, sensory awarer^ess, and creative work the
major emphases.
July 1984, saw the first attempt to spread the in-service net
wider, with repetition of the primary level course and plans to
spread the project nationwide.
In April-^May 1983, three science staff members from Pranakorn
attended a prograiigne in Environmental Education specially designed for
them at Kuring-gai College of Advanced Education. Two more lecturers
took part in a similar programme in Hay 1984. In this way, che
Pranakorn Project in Environmental Education is being reinforced and
complemented.
The Belgrade Charter makes it clear that environmental educatiofi
leadf to the recognition, prevention and solution of environmental
problems. The Pranakorn people ask: "Where do we go from here?*' The
obvious answer is, a study of local environmental Issues and the role
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to be played by the comnunlty. But what would be the reaction of
g'.vemment to a foreign consultant who attenq[>ts to offer a programme
0/1 local environmental issues, each one of which imist have a political
component? The decision to conduct such a progranme has yet to be
made. But one definite line of action will be taken-^the author will
help establish at Pranakron a Centre for Environmental Education where
teachers can come for advice and resource material.
In a nationwide radio broadcast In July 1982, the author was
asked: "Why do you come to Thailand?* The following answer appears
to be a fitting conclusion to this Australian contribution to Thai
education: "The world is facing an environmental crisis as resources
become scarce and the population Increases. Thailand has excellent
laws on conservation*-it has a policy on conservation, but no one
knows what to do with this policy. People in Thailand must develop a
new awareness of the environment, and at Pranakorn we are starting
with the teachers>>a new awareness in teachers means a new awareness
in their students. I believe I have certain skills in the field of
environmental education, and I discovered a need in Thailand* I think
I have a responsibility to other countries as well as my own."
Bibliography
Conservation for Thailand--Policy Guidelines. National Environment
Board of Thailand (lUCN & UNEP). March 1979.
"Environmental Education In Asia and the Pacific." UNESCO Bulletin .
June 1981 .
IV. Y. Wheeler, Keith. "The Role of the United Kingdom Council for
Environmental Education in Promoting Environmental Learning."
Chairman, Executive Council for Environmental Education,
University of Reading, Member of lUCN Commission on Education,
44 Hidcote Road, Oadby, Leicester LE2 5PE, United Kingdom.
The Council for Environmental Education was set up in the UK in
1968, and has continued to play an increasingly important role in
generating both formal and non-formal environmental education
initiatives. The work of the Council was detailed and a "model"
outlined for implementliio environmental education.
IV. Z. Panel: "A Network in Conservation, Natural Resources, and
Environmental Management Education: A Model for the Eastern
Caribbean." Panel Chair: Robert E. Roth, The Ohio State
University, 2021 Coffey Rd., Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.
Panelists: Elsa Talero, Doctoral Candidate and Fulbright
Scholar, Bogota, Colombia, South America; Alfredo Morillo,
Director of Environmental Education, Ministry of Agriculture.
Santu Domingo, Dominican Republic; Jill Sheppard, Executive
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Director, Caribbean Conservation Association, St. Michael,
Barbados; John Dislnger, Associate Director, ERIC/SHEAC, The
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43212, USA.
The establishment of a communications network Is proposed as a
ffltat: of achieving the considered goals of Institutional develorjment,
effective materials modifications and production. Information base
establishment and retrle* ''I program evaluation, and the monitoring of
knowledge gain and attltuoe shift over time. Panel presentations and
discussion focus on existing components of such a network that should
promise for further Implementation.
1 . "A Research and Development Communications Network for
Conservation, Natural Resources and Environmental Management Education
In the Wider Caribbean." (Robert E. Roth)
Global concern about ^environmental problems, quality of human
life and the 1ii4)act of development led to the convening of the United
Nations Conference on the Environment In Stockholm, Sweden, In June of
1972. The recently concluded tenth anniversary of the Stockholm
Conference stressed the need and role for environmental education
(Connect, 1982).
Recommendation 96 of the Stockholm Conference called for the
establishment of an International program in environmental education
that would be Interdisciplinary In approach, formal and non-formal,
encompassing all levels of edi^catlon and directed toward the general
public (UNESCO, October 1977).
During the past decade rour dominant trends are recognizable
according to the Global Perspectives Quarterly (1983) (TUCN,
'^ctober/December 1983). First, popular and scientific Interest In
environmental quality have combined to establish a new kind of
conservation movement. Second, there has been an explosion of
environmental data, but much of the Information Is of limited use In
assessing trends as a base for decision making, action and
evaluation. Third, new understanding of the structure and functioning
of environmental systems provides opportunity for more reliable
planning. Finally, 1t Is apparent that the lack of social
organization, training and political will are the common limiting
factors In Improvement of the environment and quality of life.
Environmental and natural resources agencies now exist In 14>S
countries, a 500X Increase In only 10 years (Global Perspectives
Quarterly, Fall 198'?). Such agencies are Increasingly Involved In
establishing natural resources and environmental management programs
Involving substantial land areas and equipment, many professional
personnel and clients, and considerable financial resources. In
addition to the short-^range goals of reversing trends Involving soil
erosion, deforestation, environmental degradation and water
conservation problems Including health and sanitation In developing
countries, a commonly stated major goal is: "development of an
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environmental ethic in the people of the country" ( The World
fcnvlronment Handbook . 1984). Yet, effective research and development
In environmental management education remains a key problem.
Similarly, there are few effective evaluation strategies that can
provide both short-^term and long-term evaluation or program
effectiveness.
AN R & 0 COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
The Identified needs must be addressed In meaningful context.
The (establishment of a workable Conservation, Natural Resources and
environmental Management Education Research and Development
Communications Network that can systematically address the broad
issues of training, Information dissemination, materials development
and the evaluation of materials, projects and programs can provide
that context. Such efforts are essential In relation to both the
formal and nonformal education communities 1f the goal of an
environmentally literate citizenry and quality life are to be achieved
In the developing countries of the world.
Perceived needs were Identified In relation to work In both the
English and Spanish speaking Caribbean, funded by U S. A.I.D. In
relation to three years' work through an OSU Title XII Strengthening
Grant, and a five-year Natural Resources Management (NARMA) project
with the Dominican Republic and Us Ml.^lstry of Agriculture.
The strategy that would seem to be the most appropriate Is to
build on existing Institutional bases and educational structures for
the development of trained personnel, materials, disseminating
strategies, message targeting and evaluation, through the
establishment of the Network. A program of research and development
In the Caribbean through environmental management education was
Initiated by the Division of Environmental Education at OSU 1n 1931.
Projects Involving U.S. A.I.D. , the OSU/AID Title XII program, the
Ministry of Agriculture In the Dominican Republic and the Caribbean
Conservation Association headquartered In Barbados have been
established to Incorporate relevant Information about International
environmental Issues Into existing courses at OSU and to provide
assistance to developing countries In the development of useful
environmental management and educational strategies. A basic goal
contlnuf^s to be to help the people of the various nations develop an
environmental ethic and to Institutionalize appropriate training and
environmental management education programs that lead to greater
educr^tlonal, economic and social well-being.
ELEMENTS OF THE PROPOSED COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
The proposed Research and Development Communications Network
emphasis will be to: Strengthen Institutional capability In the
development of needed Inf'^rmatlon systems and materials on
conservation, natural resources and environmental management
education; develop the capacity of cooperators to produce an
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appropriate data base in response to changing Identified needs over
time; assist In designing appropriate environmental education plans,
and strengthen agency. Institutional and organizational cooperation In
conducting long-term evaluations and short-Urn Investigations wUh
Implications for practice.
Project Format
The proposed Network, when established. Is Intended to function
by utilizing a Network Support Center at The Ohio State University and
a Network Research and Development Center located In each cooperating
country* Each Center would be governed by a director with guidance
provided by a steering committee. Communications would be maintained
through the use of microcomputer linkages thereby providing effective
Information transmission, storage and retrieval. The development of a
relevant data base, subsequent materials production, and a
clearinghouse service for information, evaluation^ and expertise are
typical outputs expected from the functioning of the Network. A
quarterly newsletter would be produced with each Center adding a page
unique to that country.
Project Sequence
As a first step In establishing the Research and Development
Communications Network it is proposed that a Workshop in Conservation,
Natural Resources and Environmental Management Education be conducted
1n Barbados *n early 1985 In cooperation with the tirlbbean
Conservation Association, the University of West Indies and selected
developing countries of the English speaking Caribbean. As a means of
establishing the proposed Research and Development Communications
Network structure a series of goals are specified below that are to be
accomplished during the proposed workshop.
1. To Identify counterpart conservation, natural resources and
environmental management educators and scientists In each
participating developing country of the Eastern Caribbean.
2. To define appropriate evaluative strategies and research needs in
relation to conservation, natural resources, and environmental
education development in countries of the Eastern Caribbean.
3. To determine the current status of conservation, natural resources
and environmental information and programs development in each
cooperating Eastern Caribbean nation.
4. To assist narilcipants in developing procedures by which baseline
data can be developed concerning environmental, conservation and
natural resources concepts and attitudes held by various segments
of society in each of twelve cooperating Eastern Caribbean nations.
5. To initiate exploration of the application of conservation,
natural resources and environmental information and education
practice and procedures to problems in developing countries of the
Eastern Caribbean.
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6. To produce a documenc suitable for publication detailing current
status and identified research needs in conservation, natural
resources and environmental information and education in
participating countries in the Eastern Caribbean.
Network support would: (1) facilitate communications; (2)
implement policy decisions; (3) Insure appropriate evaluation; (4)
monitor the use of resources; and (5) conduct workshops involving
materials production, microcomputer applications and evaluations.
The Center Directors would:
1. establish a Center in each cooperating country;
2- modify materials to meet identified needs;
3. participate in evaluation strategies;
4. train educators » communicators and Interpreters;
5. meet periodically with other network directors to review
policy programs and to share information.
Potential Benefits
The proposed research and development effort, when fully
implemented, will provide a basis for evaluation of conservation,
natural resources and environmental management programs, ^nd the
evaluation of knowledge and beliefs held ^y various clientele groups
in the cooperating nations and their changes over time. It is
anticipated that prog^*am benefit would occur in relation to the
stabilization of natural resources degradation, development of sound
natural resources and environmental mu.rigement education programs in
the schools, colleges and universities f.nd for the general public.
Monitoring of such programs over tiine as a means of assessing cost
effectiveness and enhancing sustainable development would help assure
the development of a quality of life and environment in the most
economical manner.
Benefits to the U.S. citizen, funding agencies and organizations
concerned with conservation, natural resources and environmental
management will include:
1. Establishment of effective evaluative strategies of use in
measuring program effectiveness as determined by knowledge
gain and attitude shift on relevant conservation, natural
resources and environmental quality issues.
2. Establishment of procedures to define a baseline of
environmental information and beliefs possessed by various
clientele and voting citizens of cooperating countries:
3. Development of strategies for assessing the cost effectiveness
of environmental management information and education
strategies.
The proposed Research and Development Communications Network will
provide a mechanism for the effective management of natural resources
and the development of sound programs \n environmental learning. The
accessibility of useable information Is essential for the fulfillment
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of basic human needs and the eradication of poverty while
achieving the goal of sustained development* Reversing the
trends of soil degradation, deforestation, desertification,
pesticide impact and ^dmfiMt population growth will require
intense envi^onmenta^ education at all levels. The formal and
nonformal sectors will have to be utilized effectively. The
proposed Research and Development Cornvminicatlons Network for
conservation, natural resources and environmental management
can provide the necessary framework for the development of an
environmental ethic and improvement of the quality of life for
people of the Wider Caribbean.
Bibliography
"International Environmental Education Since Stockholm and Tbilisi."
Connect . March 1982. VII (1), 1-4.
UNESCO. Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education,
Tbilisi, U.S.S.R., 14-26 Octr'>er 1977. Final Report. Paris, 1978.
lUCN Bulletin . News series, Oc.uber/Oecember 1983, 14 (12), 1196
Gland, Switzerland.
Natural Resources Management {in the Dominican Republic) . Project No.
517-0126. U.S. AID, 1981, p34.
The World Environment Handbook . World Environment Center, New York,
1984.
•^K^rld Environment Trends Between 1972 and 1982." Global Perspectives
Quarterly . Fall 1983, 1(1), p. 5.
2. ''Environmental Education In the Dominican Republic." (Alfredo
Norillo)
Overview
The Dominican Republic shares with Haiti, the Island of
Hispaniola, the second largest of the Antilles. Occupying the eastern
portion of Hisoaniola, the Dominican Republic covers 48,442 square
kilometers (KM^) (30,276.25 H^) In a natural resources inventory
(1065-66) carried out by the Organization of American States, the
country's land was classified according to its production capability
as Is presented In the table belcw. (#1)
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Table I. Land Capability Classification (AID, 1981)
Class
A,
4.9
Production Caoacltv
tkt*l!#nt m Cultivation
I
537
II
2.350
Very Good for Cultivation
III
3,122
6.6
Good for Cultivation
IV
3.639
7.7
Limited or Marginal for
Cultivation
V
6.071
12.7
Pasture; no erosion hazard
VI
5.611
11.8
Pasture; Erosion Hazard
VII
25. Ui^
52.7
Forest
VIII
1.202
47.693
?.5
100.0
Wild lands
In 1967» tree cutting was prohibited and the sawmills were
closed. At the same time, the Nllltary Forces took over the national
forest. However » those measures were not enough to stop the
progressive degradation of natural resources. In fact» many people
continued cutting trees for different reasons, such as {[rowing crops,
building houses, and raising cattle; of course, these activities were
Illegal because the Law 5856 (1967) prohibited this action.
For these reasons, 'deforestation continues largely unabated In
the broad-leaved forests" (Dominican Republic Environmental Profile,
AID, 1981). The other renewable natural resources, such as water,
soil, and wildlife were affected, too. Many former sawmill workers
became little farmers who began to grow crops on the Condi lleras
(forest lands); however, they did not know how to conserve the soil
and control erosion In order to obtain good production for long
periods of time. In addition, no educational program was developed
with those people.
The soil loss Is une of the most Important problems In the
Dominican Republic. We are losing, through erosion, about 500
tons/ha/year In the most critical watershed. The Dominican Republic
Environmental Profile remarks:
"The Dominican Republic faces very serious challenges Involving
food, energy, and population that have already caused substantial
environmental degradation and portend a bleak future not only for
natural resources, but for the country as well." It continues:
"In this decade (1980s) the Dominican Republic must accomplish
what she has been unable or unwilling to do 1i the recent past."
This Is certainly true. However, In late 197b the problem
concerning natural resources was seriously considered by the new
government. Indeed, three soil conservatlo.i projects were Implemented
at that time In three different, critical watersheds. Joined to those
projects was the first environmental education program led by the
Secretariat for Agriculture (Subsecretarlat of Natural Resources).
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130
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAM
Activities
The Environmental Educat'.on Program developed two types of
activities: (1) conservation education, and (2) environmental
education. Itself.
Conservation education: the conservation activities were led for
little farmers (Campeslnos) located In the most disturbed watersheds.
It was the first time that a conservationist message was taken to the
campeslnos who work In the cordllleras.
These activities started with Informal meetings to which community
leaders were Invited. For cultural patterns, the first step In any
rural community must be to meet the local leaders. After several
meetings only a few people accepted conservationist works In their
small farms. The environmental education team had the responsibility
to the project cf teaching campeslnos about the erosion problem and
the accurate methods for Its control.
After two or three months the campeslnos began to realize that the
conservationist technicians wanted to help them. Then, many
campeslnos offered their lands for soil conservation works and
attended every meeting scheduled.
Environmental Education: While conservation education activities
were Implemented in the watersheds, others were developed In the urban
area. An agreement with the Education Ministry was reached for
training In-service teachers and students. Other institutions and
organizations, public and private, offered to help order to
organize an environmentalist movement. At the same time, audlo-vlsuai
materials were made, and workshops designed. These workshops were
designed according to type of audience and local or regional
problems. In addition to these activities, a T.V. program was
presented and committees for conservation were organized.
The scope of the environmental education was nationwide. At that
time the audience was divided Into: farmers and no farmers
(campeslnos); teachers {In service and pre-fervlce); students
(different levels); agricultural technicians (extension agents);
community leaders; organized groups; and public In general.
The Domlnlcaii Republic, as Is well known. Is a developing country
with economical problems. However, In 1978 the new authorities
considered It necessary to support a program for
environmental/conservation education- Indeed, the program had the
necessary resources for operating.
In early 1979, an environmental education project was presented to
the Inter^American Development Bank (lOB) joined with one general
training project in agriculture. It began in late 1980. Another
project was approved by UNESCO in 1980. It was an experimental
project developed in a specific area and its major goal was to teach
people abott natural disasters, especially hurricanes.
In 1980, a Natural Resource Management Project (NARMA) was
presented to the U.S. AID which included a component for environmental
education.
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131
NARrM PROJECT: EnvironmenUI Education Component: It \s the
first interdisciplinary and interagency project implemented in the
Dominican Republic in the natural resources area. It is being
supported with funds from the Dominican Government and the U.S. AID.
The NARNA project could be considered having the best purpose for
natural resources management and agency integration* Its general
purposes and goal are:
-to strengthen the institutional capability to effectively promote
the development of the country's natural resources,
-to establish a soil and water conservation model that can be used
to help stop the degradation of the nation's natural resources.
Goal .
The goal of the project is to increase the income and standard of
living of the rural poor*
In order to reach the purposes and goal, NARNA project has several
components including environmental education* The specific objectives
and goals of this compon are:
-develop an environme. ^1 education campaign in both nationwide
and watershed levels.
-develop environmental education materials for workshops and
specific messages targeted for school teachers, farmers,
technicians, and community leaders.
-develop criteria and procedures for evaluating the impact of mass
media programs for natural resources education and workshops given
to farmers, local leader, technicians, and the general public.
The environmental education activities are developed both at the
national as well as watershed levels. This component is working in
formal and informal education as wcil ds conservation education.
Posters, written bulletins, pamphlets, radio programs, T-shirts,
bumper stickers and video tape of the project have been prepared for
the mass media program. Curricula for environmental education for
grades 1-6 have been designed with activities description. A number
of programs for short courses have been designed with different target
groups in mind. Also, following the curricula suggested by Dr.
William B. Stapp (Perspectives, UNESCO, 1978), modules for
auto-instruction are being written for teachers*
In 1982, the first national conference about environmental
education was held. It was sponsored by the NARMA Project,
Environmental Education Component, Universidad National Pedro
Henriquez Urena, and The Ohio State University-Division of
Environmental Education. About a hundred people from different
agencies, universities, and conservationist groups attended this
conference.
In order to r^ach the goals, the environmental education
activities have been designed according to: the audience interest in
specific conservatiOii topics; the local problems; the utilization of
local and regional organizations and committees; the urgent necessity
of our country in focd-crop production; and the cultural patterns.
er|c
132
SUMMARY
Environmental education activities are relatively new In the
Dominican Republic. Consequently, people who are Implementing those
activities have» (most of them) empirical knowledge about
environmental education because they are not graduates In this area
but In other related areas.
However, environmental education has gained power In the Dominican
Republic and a few people are (and will be) studying environmental
education, natural resources management, forestry, and soil
conservation.
The present activities are going to be rt^lnforced when the 31menoa
Training Center win be completed this year. It Is a National Center
for training In Natural Resources Conservation by the Department of
Environmental Education.
In the same way, a strategy for Environmental Education Activities
was written and recently began Its Implementation.
We have a great challenge. We are wining to accept it. We need
to work hard In order to control the natural resources degradation and
to Improve the standard of nving of our people. Environmental
education Is one way to reach our goals. We ben eve so.
Blbnoqraphv
1. Agency International for Development (US AID). "The Dominican
Repubnc Country Environmental Profile: A field study." 1981.
2. Tlnnermeler, Ronald et a1. "First Evaluation Report of the
Pomlnlcan Repubnc Natural Resources Management ProJect-NAREHA."
Santo Domingo, Dominican Repubnc, 1984.
134
133
V.A. Baer, Richard A. "Preserving Human Freedom In a T1ir*e of
Environmental Crisis. Professor, Department of Natural
Resources, New York State College of Agriculture and Life
Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA.
As the United States and other nations grapple with environmental
problems, and particularly as the need for more environmental
regulations becomes apparent, governments will likely Increase their
control over the lives of citizens. This will be necessary to
preserve productive farmland, limit population growth, regulate toxic
wastes, limit the depletion of non-renewable natural resources, and
ward off environmental disasters which might result from such
developments as acid precipitation or the worldwide Increase of
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
With particular reference to the United States, the question was
posed: How will we be able to preserve personal and societal freedom
In a time of Increasing government control? In particular, the
discussion was focused on schooling and government's role In schooling*
Small minorities of both liberal and conservative thinkers today
go so far as to argue that the present structure of government schools
In the United States Is unconstitutional, particularly at the
elementary and secondary levels. This system, dependent as It 1s on
monopoly government financing, violates— so they hold-basic free
speech and freedom of religion provisions of the First Amendment.
These critics argue for various changes. Including the
disestablishment of the government monopoly position In financing.
The presentation showed why there Is substance to these arguments.
This paper focused on the United States, but It has relevance for
all nations concerned with government's role In schooling and the
preservation of freedom In a time of global environmental problems and
a deepening awareness of planetary environmental limits.
In particular, discussion focus was on the teaching of values,
Including environmental values. In government schools, and the
presentation made clear why problems such as which values to teach,
censorship of textbooks and library books, and whe>:her prayer should
be permitted In public schools, are so difficult to resolve under
present circumstances.
V.B. Martin, Jim and Diana Thompson. "Government Support and
Leadership In Environmental Education." Head, Environmental
Education Branch, Alberta Environment, 0820-lOfe Street,
Edmonton, Alberta T5K 2J6, Canada; Environmental Education
Co-ordlnator, Alberta Recreation and Parks, 1001-9029 113
Street, Edmonton, Alberta T5K 2N9, Canada.
Executive Summary
The purpose of this paper Is to trace the key role that provincial
government departments have played In furthering the growth of
environmental education In Alberta., It describes the level and type
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134
of provincial InvoWeipent past and present and makes recommendations
for the future.
The historical perspective, analyzed through a process model,
Includes major thrusts from government and non-government sources
which culminated In provincial government Involvement through funding,
policy development, facilities, materials and personnel support.
An examination of the current situation outlines the Influence of
government departments In and on environmental education programming.
A comprehensive overview Including specific examples from within
government will be given to Illustrate program thrusts, level of
funding, specialized environmental education personnel and target
markets.
The factors Influencing future directions In government
environmental education programming efforts will be explored through
an examination of the environmental, social, political and economic
pressures that are the reality of the next decade*
Introduction
The purpose of this paper Is to trace the key role that provincial
government departments have played In furthering the growth of
environmental education In Alberta* The paper analyses this role
through use of a process model. The aithors of this paper feel that
the model could be apolled In any situation where government Is
Involved In environmental education. The paper Is written as a
theoretical treatise In hope of generating discussion. It does not
reflect the policy or opinion of any government department or agency.
Process Model of Government Response
Government can play two roles In the development of environmental
education: that of catalyst and that of leader.
As catalyst, government agencies provide the spark that Is needed
to generate environmental education activity. This can be In the form
of grants, leadership training or program Initiatives. In the
catalyst role, government provides only Incentive or support. It Is
the grassroots sector that becomes responsible for environmental
education development.
In a leadership role, government takes an active role In promoting
and ensuring the development of environmental education. In this
situation, the grassroots sector depends on government to provide
facilities, to train personnel, and to develop a variety of programs
and material .
As catalyst, government seeds environmental education growth. As
^^ader, government provides direction that shapes environmental
education development.
In both the catalyst and leadership roles, government can either
respond to need or Initiate environmental education developments.
This Is Illustrated In the model presented In Figure I which shows the
process of Interaction between government and the grassroots sector.
138
135
F igure I
Likely Responses
from Grassroots
Government Role
Government Action
Yes/Y s
Catalyst Responding
We know what you want
and we* 11 supply the
support possible.
?/Yes
Leader Responding
We'll do what you
No/?
Catalyst Initiating
think should be done.
We think this should
be done so >re's some
support*
No/No
Leader Inltlatln'^
We know what needs .0
be done and we'll do It.
Environmental education development occurs In four ways through
this process: leader Initiating, catalyst Initiating, leader
responding, catalylst responding. Let us examine the Interplay
between the grassroots sector and government when government takes on
each of these four roles.
When government as leader ^initiates environmental education
development the government stance Is "we know wnat needs to be done
and we'll do It." This will often result In e negative response frorn
the grassroots sector. Because It has not been part of the decision
making process. It has no vested Interest In the resulting course of
action.
When government takes a leadership role that Is responsive, the
stance changes to "we'll do what you think should be done*" This
approach receives more support with the grassroots sector due to Its
potential for meeting direct needs. However, since the Initiative
does not come from the grassroots sector there Is often no commitment
and confusion as to what course of action to take and gove nmer.t
support Is not as effective as it could be.
When government as the catilyst tries to Initiate, the stance
becomes "we think this should be done so here Is some support." Again
the grassroots sector resists government control but the possibility
for direct support from government Is appealing.
When government In the ca^^^lyst role Is responsive, the stance Is
"we know what you want and we'll provide the support required."
Response from the grassroots sector Is positive. Environmental
education grows through a strong grassroots support base that
Initiates development and Is supported by government wherever possible.
The role of government will shift and change within this proce:s
with varying degrees of success* Ideally, as has been described,
environmental education will be strong where there Is grassroots
Initiative supported by government- -w^ere government as the catalyst
respords to need.
137
136
rhe ?5lstory of environmental education In Albe.-ta may De traced
through an analysis of government's changing role as outlined In the
model. In describing the process of government Involvement, we are
dealing w1*h a theoretical framework within which to explain events
and courses of action that have Influenced environmental education
growth. This framework Is shaped by many factors into reality. The
social, economic and political climate Influence the role that
government can play. The most constant and consistent trend within
this context Is change.
Analysis of Interaction
The following chart Is an analysis, through time, of the
Interaction of provincial government depaitments and the grassroots
environmental education movement. It attempts. In a very generalized
way, to outline the roles and responses of government to ^e
grassroots sector through approximately fifteen years of environmental
education development In Alberta. The growth and organization of the
grassroots sector Is paralleled by growth and organization In
government.
138
GRASS ROOn*
Environmental Educators
Leadership
With greater resource support
and Interest progrm begin to
develop and grow.
Individuals conniltted to ee/oe
identify sources for support frost
govermnent.
Pressure on leaders to assist new
educators In the field of et/oe.
Programs continue to develop In
number and size as support from
service departments and educa-
tion department Increases.
Leadership organizes to deal
with expanded grassroots
Interest. General needs of
Alberta educators In ee/oe
Identified and conmunlcated.
f-ome programs are accepted
and meet needs— others are
not subscribed to because
they did not raeet cur^^ent
needs .
Educators redirect some
Interest away from ee as pres-
sures to meet needs of formal
curriculum and new curriculum
Increase. Lack of coordinated
ee support continues and ee
lea<^ersh1p Is less visible.
Leadership by coonltted 'pioneer'
leaders Is replaced by leadership
who loc^ upon ee/oe as a profes-
sional responsibility— leadership
Is of shorter duration and needs
of membership not clearly Identi-
fied and conmunlcated.
a;
a.
139
GOVERNMENT
Service Department Alberta Education
Government sources respond with available
funds, generally of a one-time nature.
(Catalyst responding)
Pressure on government departments for
more support of an on-going nature leads
to need for greater rationalizing within
each department's mandate'*- programs must
show a service to the department.
Programs developed to meet expressed needs
of grassroots also seen as service to
department mandates,
(Leadev responding)
Pressure on the department
leads to statement of
basic support.
(Catalyst responding)
Departments develop positions within
the bureaucracy to respond and Interpret
requests of educational cominlty.
(Leader resvcnding)
Programs are developed that are Initiated
by this staff based on their Interpretation
of need.
(Leader responding)
Education responds with
continued support of ee/oe
and through non-specific
program funding.
(Catalyst responding)
Some programs developed at
the department's Initiative.
(Leader initiating)
Government staff has difficulty responding
to grassroots leadership because It per-
ceives their reduced capability to ascer-
tain grassroots needs and beceuse of the
sort duration of their Involvement.
Coordinator's position
developed by the deoartment
to deal with ee/oe. Program
Initiated by the department.
(Leader initiating)
Department does not accept
responsibility for leadership
of coordinated ee responses,
departments. Proarams often lack
curriculum credibility.
(Leader initiating)
Programs continue to be Initiated by
the departments. Prorram efforts are
not effectively coordinated between
140
138
Intervention s
Although the preceding chart Invites critical analysis of the
history of environmental education development. It is Important that
any criticism allow learning for future well-being. In doing so we
would like to focus on three Interventions that could have altered the
history of environmental education development In Alberta and that can
still be applied today to ensure growth of environmental education In
the future.
1. The responsibility for all education, including environmental
education, lies vith Alberta Education. With the growth of
Interest in environmental education in the province, from the
early seventies, the leadership in government could have been
assumed by Alberta Education. This would have included
direction-giving to the grassroots leadership, coordination of
government resource and response and the legitimization within the
curriculum of enviroranental education progra: .
2. The environmental education leadership could have focused in its
needs Identification on leadership training and a communication
system with Its grassroots membership. This would have led to a
more knowledgeable and committed leadership with the ability to
advise government on environmental education needs and to provide
for continuing quality leadership as the "pioneers" retired.
3. Direct cowrouni cation and formal cooperation between the grassroots
leadership, service departments and Alberta Education from the
earliest endeavours could have enhcnced development in
environmental education In the last decade.
Conclusion
As stated, It Is not beyond the capability of the environmental
education comr.unlty, including the government service and leadership
sectors and Alberta Education, to Institute the above Interventions as
the basis of environmental education action now and for the future.
The broad base of environmental education requires the
coordination that comes from a strong leadership. This leadership in
turn can depend on fewer but still considerable resources from
government. Alberta Education can. in its present restructuring of
curriculum, take the initiative to provide the overall direction for
environmental education In the future.
It Is Imperative that, within the confines of the educational
curriculum, the needs of environmental educators be communicated to
the government sector and they, in turn, respond with continued
support.
V.C. Nelson, Kenneth J. "Overview of the Role of the Environmental
Education Advisory Committee to the Environment Council of
Alberta." Coninuni cat Ions Officer, Environmental Council of
Alberta, 8th Floor Weber Centre, 5555 Calgary Trail, Edmonton,
Alberta T6H 5P9, Canada.
139
The Environment Council of Alberta (ECA) Is a government-owned and
funded corporation set up to assist the government of Alberta with Its
environmental decision making. It has a mandate to review policies,
programs and government activities which relate to envlronmentdl
conservation In this province* ECA supports a small In-house staff.
At the same time, the ECA underwrites the activities of several public
advisory cmnmlttees on the environment made up of volunteers from many
sectors of Alberta society* ECA staff provides a secretariat for
these volunteer committees. These committees advise both the ECA and
the government on environmental Issues of concern to the public at
large.
When requested to do so by the government, the ECA Involves the
wider public more directly through large-scale public hearings on
specific environmental Issues. Reports and recommendations go
directly from the ECA to government on these occasions.
Since the formation of the ECA In 1970, there has been a public
advisory committee on environmental education. At the present time,
this committee Is called the Environmental Education Advisory
Committee, or EEAC, with a membership of approximately 18 people.
These people are, for the most part, representing themselves, rather
than some outside entity such as a school or an association. They
are, however, usually professional educators or communicators who may
or may not be associated with the educational system In a formal way.
They share a conviction that environmental education Is central to the
lopment of a child's Intellectual awareness of the world around,
that communicating about environmental concerns-^and what can be
done about them— Is of vital Interest to everyone. Including
educators, throughout life. As a committee, their main function Is to
give considered advice to the ECA and the government on environmental
education In the schools, and on Information programs for the public
about environmental Issues. That Is, their role Is to assist the ECA
to raise public consciousness about the environment, and about ways
the public car participate In decisions affecting the environment.
It*s not an easy task at the best of times, let alone during the worst
economic conditions Alberta has faced since before World War IK
In 1972, this conmlttee seh out to Identify what was
currently being done In environmental education In
Alberta, and what directions and Initiatives could be
pursued. The following year. It concentrated on
defining environmental education. No single definition
was agreed upon, but several elements were set down.
The committee organized a provincial conference on
environmental education for Hay 1974. The conference
had three objectives; to provide a setting for the
exchange of Information among those Interested In
environmental education, to direct public attention to
the Importance of environmental education, and to
provide a basis for future planning. A "state of the
art" study was commissioned to form the basis for
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140
discussion at this conference. It focussed on the
formal education system, provincial governmnent
departments and non-government groups.
About 220 delegates from a broad spectrum of agencies
and organizations attended this First Alberta Conference
on Environmental Education. Its proceedings were
published In December 1974. The conference generated
227 recommendations for further action. The
Environmental Education Advisory Committee published a
condensed version of these under fivt areas of concern:
the environmental ethic, the role of government, the
role of universities, teacher education and the role of
the educational media These recommendations were
endorsed by the ECA and then brought to the attention of
the authorities for Implementation.
The following recommendations were addressed to all
government departments and other institutions and
agencies concerned with environmental education:
I) There should be a general campaign of Information and
education, using all the appropriate media and
sophisticated methods of presentation, to emphasize
man's role In the environment, taking a holistic view of
the relationships between science, economics,
aesthetics, social morality and Individual growth.
II) Environmental education should be concerned with all
three modes of learning - Intellectual understanding,
emotional awareness, actual behaviour (I.e. what we can
do about It), and with values.
III) Such learning should be an Integral part of
educational activities at all levels, i.e. kindergarten
to recurrent education for adults.
1v) Action should be taken by all govirnment departments
Concerned, to work In concert with one another and with
the ATA (Alberta Teachers' Association) and ASTA
(Alberta School Trustees Association) to prepcre
Information and relevant materials for use In the formal
education system.
V) Such concerted action should also be taken to prepare
relevant Infoimatlon and materials to be used by ACCESS
(Alberta Educational Communications Corporation) and
other media agencies in their prorjr arnming outside the
formal education system.
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141
In 197S the conmlttee merbershlp completely changed
and moved toward more 'public' representation. The
committee set about to define Its goals, mode of
operation and possible future ictlvltles. It
Initiated follow-up on the 1974 conference. The
membership structure was changed In 1979 to Include
six people* each representing one of the Public
Advisory Committee study groups. There were to be 12
others, drawn from the public at large
During this time the Public Advisory Committee on the
Environment (PAC) also noted matters relating to
environmental education. A resolution was passed at the
1979 Joint meeting of the Public Advisory Committee on
the EniTlronraent and the ECA: 'Be It resolved that the
provincial government develop educational programs and
Information outlets to make the public aware of the
Impact and consequences of existing urbanization trends
and the range of urban form and settlement alternatives
that are available to thirn. '
In 1980 the EEAC published a role statement. 'Its
purpose Is to advise the Council and the Soverraiient on
matters of environmental education, to comment on
environmental programs both within and outside of the
formal education systems, and to assist In the
formulation, development and Implementation of such
programs ^rherever possible.'
During 1981 and 1982 the committee was more act've. It
outlined an education strategy that would be appropriate
to bring about public action on a specific environmental
issue. It then applied this to the Issue of private
sewage disposal. The result was an 'action kit' which
was assembled and distributed to members of PAC and
members of the Legislative Assembly for pilot test.
During this time two sub-^commlttees were established:
one, to meet with environmental education co-ordlnators
In government and the other, to assess the status of
environmental education 1n formal Institutions. (Braiiin,
1984)
In Hay 1974, when the "First Alberta Conference on Environmental
Education" was held, over 200 Albertans had the opportunity to
exchange Ideas and develop a basis for future planning. The
Environment Council of Alberta's then Public Advisory Committee on
Environmental Education, now EEAC, consolidated tne many
recommendations that emerged. These were directed toward teachers'
organizations, government, universities, the media and other agencies
concerned with environmental education.
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142
This June (1984), the Environment Council of Alberta and Alberta
Environment sponsored the "Communicating Environmental Trends"
conference. Delegates to this conference discussed environmental
education past, present and future. This conference was billed as
the second Environmental Conference for Alberta, and from It came
a further set of recommendations:
MAJOR RECOHHENDATIOWS
1. That a study of the environmental movement In Alberta, including -
history of the movement and an assessment of its accomplishments,
be undertaken.
That Alberta Environment take a lead role Initiating and/or
funding aspects of this assessment.
2. That a conference be held to expand on aspects of communicating
environmental issues.
That this conference Include and be funded by environmentalists,
educators, government. Industry and the media.
SUPPLEHEWTARY RECOHHENDATIONS
3. That a clearinghouse be established to Increase access of
environmental information from diverse sources (e.g. government.
Industry, environmental groups).
4. That the existing mode for networking smongst environmentalists,
environmental educators, government, industry and the media, be
identified.
5. That there be public service announcements to Increase public
awareness that environmental protection is everyone's
responsibility.
In the light of the recommendations from the i984 conference, it
seems that the more things change, the more they stay the same. The
1974 conference was about formal education, and the 1984 conference
was about environmental communications in a broader sense than formal
education. Yet, both conferences, and the Public Advisory Coranlttee,
and so many others, speak of the need to "network", and to make
information clearinghouses that actually work available as a real
public service, information remains the challenge. How it gets
packaged may change, but the basic need for it remains, I am afraid,
largely unfilled. Those packages are not getting delivered often
enough.
Ken Nelson
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REFERENCE
Brainm, Susan. Environmental Education 1n Alberta: The Last
Ten Years . Edmonton: Environmental Education Resources Branch,
Alberta Environment, 1984.
V.D- SYMPOSIUM: "Canada/U.S. Environmental Relations*. CHAIR: Alan
M. Schwartz, Director, Environmental Studies, St. Lawrence
University, Canton, New York 13617, USA. PRESENTERS: John H.
Baldwin, Department of Planning, Public Policy ^nd Management,
156 Hendricks Hall, University of Oregouv Eugene, Oregon 97403,
USA.; George Francis, University of Waterloo, Ontario N2L 2R7,
Canada.; Joel J. Sckolsky, John Hopkins University, School of
Advanced International Studies, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
The United States and Canada share the longest border between any
two nations 1n the world as weTl as the longest water boundary.
Opportunities for environmental conflicts across this border are
numerous and It Is Indeed a significant Indication of the effort both
nations have put forward that the problems between the two nations are
not more numerous and do not result In wore conflict. Although acid
rain Is a well known problem, other problems, and the mechanlsmns to
solve these problems, are crucial to the fate of the environment
shared by these two nations. This syn^oslum examined aclu rain,
fisheries, and water resource problems between the U.S. and Canada, as
well as the mechanisms by which each country tries to Influence the
other.
1- "Canada, Congress, and Transborder Environmental Issues". {Joel J.
Sokolsky) .
This paper examined the role of Congress In the resolution and/or
lack thereof, of environmental issues that have arisen between Canada
and the United States. While the two national governments and Joint
bodies such as the International Joint Commission are the most salient
actors In transborder environmental Issues, Congressional action can,
and has, had a profound Impact on the ability of the two national
governments to arrive at mutually acceptable solutions to such
Issues. Moreover, because the ultimate resolution of particular
problems depends upon funds voted by Cono'^ess, the legislative branch
1s often important In determining whethei the United States will be
able to live up to Its obligations.
The paper revH.^ed several case studies, such as the Great Lakes
Water Quality Agreement, the Garrison Diversion and Acid Rain, to
Indicate the Importance of Congress In this area of Canada-U.S.
relations. It also examined the efforts on the part of the Canadian
federal government, (and varlcjis provincial governments) to lobby
Congress on environmental Issues. While It Is clear that Canada
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cannot Ignore the views of Congress on such Issues, 1t 1s less certain
that Canada can influence Congressional action In ways favourable to
Its own environmental Interests.
2. "Acid Rain: The Science and the Conflict". (John H.
Baldwin) .
In the past four years, the conflict between the Canadian and
American governments over the problem of acid rain has escalated to a
point of serious International conflict. This paper briefly
summarized recent findings on the acid rain problem, then
characterized: (1) the parties In conflict; (2) their positions; and
(3) the scientific, political, and economic foundations of these
positions. The alternative solutions proposed by Industry and the
Canadian and American governments was discussed with reference to the
efficiency of the cleanup, the costs, and the equity of economic and
environmental Impacts.
3. "The Resolution of Environmental Controversy by
International Diplomacy: The Case of the Skagit
River/Ross 0am Controversy". (Alan Schwartz).
The City of Seattle received approval from the International Joint
Commission over forty years ago to raise the height of a dam which
would flood up to 5,000 acres of British Columbia. As plans to raise
the dam were being finalized thirty years later, the new environmental
consciousness of the 1970' s led to protests from British Columbia
about the proposed flooding. British Columbia asked the International
Joint Commission to nullify previous approvals to raise the dam while
Seattle steadfastly maintained that It had the legal right to
proceed. In 1983, the commission used new and untried techniques by
creating a Joint consultlve group comprised of members of the IJC,
representatives of the governments of Canada and the United States,
the Province of British Columbia and the City of Seattle as well as
two Independent technical advisors. In order to bring resolution to
this conflict. The IJC departed from Its usual role of fact finder
and instead became active mediator working toward a problem resolution
that would not only satisfy both parties, but would uphold the Intent
of the boundary Waters Treaty of 1909. This paper emphasized the new
methodologies used by the Commission and the environmental amenities
that were thus protected. Speculation on the applicability of this
technique for the resolution of other transboundary environmental
Issues was discussed.
4. "International University Study on Great Lakes Ecosystem
Rehabilitation". (George Francis).
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V.E. Panel: "Information and Dissemination Systems: Recommendation,
Realities, Possibilities". PANEL CHAIR: David L. Hanselman,
Professor, Oepartnent of Landscape Architecture, College of
Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New
York, Syracuse, New York 13210, USA. PANELISTS: Tony Angell,
Stpervlsor, Environmental Education Prot^rams, Washington State
Dept. of Education, Northwest Section, 18237-40th Avenue. NE,
Seattle, Washington 98155, USA; Augusto Q. Medina, Education
Specialist, RARE, Inc., 1601 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Washington,
O.C. 20009, USA; John F. 01 singer. Associate Director,
ERIC/SHEAC, 1200 Chambers Road, Columbus, Ohio 43212, USA; John
J. Padalino, Director, Pocr.no Environmental Education Center,
R.D. 1, Box 26R, Dingmans Ferry, Pennsylvania "58328, USA.
Recommendation 33 of the First National Congress for Environmental
Education Futures: Policies and Practices calls for the Invention,
Implementation, and Institutionalization of an expanded Infonnatlon
system for collecting, describing, Index'ing, and disseminating
materials useful In environmental education. Panelists addresesed
these questions - What specific services are requested, explicitly and
Implicitly, by this recomnendatlon? To what extent might an
Integration of existing systems provide them? What else Is needed?
What alternative models of meeting the specifics of this
recommendation are possible and Implementable? Who would use such
services, and to what extent. If they were available? Who should, and
can, provide leadership and support? Is an expectation of continuing
support feasible, or are alternative support mechanisms needed? To
what extent are such alternatives feasible?
1. "Information and Dissemination In Environmental
Education: Recommendations". (John J. Padalino).
The first step In obtaining consensus for educational change to
Improve the global environment Is to convince ourselves that the task
must be accomplished. We must also convince our constituents,
students, as well as their parents, that basic education at the local
level Includes communication, higher problem solving skills and
environmental literacy - the thinking tools that allow us to
comprehend the seriousness of the world's population, resources, and
environmental problems.
Recommendations from the parti cipjnts at the First National
Congress for Environmental Education Futures: Policies & Practices,
call for support for environmental education via a responsive
electronic network. Information and dissemination systems,
dissemination to teachers, and the media. These recommendations echo
similar statements made at previous national meetings focused on
Improving education on environment. This first EE Congress, August
83, was preceded by no less than eight national policy conferences
that had been convened since 1970. These national convocations served
as a valuable prelude for addressing environmental education policies
and practices In America for the next decade.
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The Alliance for Environmental Education (AEL/, the organization
that coordinated the Congress, has been nurturing the growth ani
Influence of environmental educators In America longer than a decade.
The AEF. was founded during the early 70*s among .organizations of
professionals with support from the Johnson Foundation. AEE
affiliates now number 30 and represent diverse Interests of youth,
physical fitness enthusiasts, naturalists, educators, business and
Industry, labor unions and research Institutions. AEE extends an
Invitation to provincial, regional, and state organizations, and their
equivalents to affiliate with our network.
Coordinating this Congress was AEE's most recent contribution.
The meeting became a forum for over 400 concerned professionals from
21 environmental organizations listening, discussing, and drafting
*.deas for a coalition of organizations to Improve the quality of
environment and education throughout America. Our educational opinion
making and decision making has been characterized as diffuse and
fragmented. Hence, It Is recommended that practitioners In the
environmental education community work together to analyze the
decision/policy making process, monitor them and provide colleagues
with technical assistance and Info^rmatlon as needed. In order for us
to be more effective to our colleagues we need Information about:
the current status of environmental education at the pre-coUeqe
level - Including statistical and descriptive Information; latest
policy, programs, and legislative developments at locai, state,
and national levels; list of available environmental education
speakers and audio-visual materials;
member organizations within the environmental education community
> lists of their environmental education activities, experiences,
and resources; school materials available for teachers.
There has been In the environmental education community an ongoing
need for ronmunl cation. My premise is that environmental education
practitioners (school and community, local and state and regional)
can, and want to assist each other and themselves In developing
effective environmental education programs. To accomplish this our
colleagues recommend that:
"AEE Initiate the development of a committee of researchers and
evaluators from the environmental community to establish a
responsive network through electronic data base which would
include:
-A director of researchers and evaluators in the field, their
interest and their activities In process:
Needs of researchers and evaluators as thoy pursue their
activities:
Recommendations (made by other researchers and evaluators. and
by practitioners) for further research to help environmental
education practloners do a better job."
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In addition to researching and evaluating Information, the
expansion of current information and dissemination systems was
recommended .
-An expanded information system should be devised, implemented and
institutionalized for collecting, describing, indexing, and
disseminating materials useful in environmental education
training, research, and communication. This system should be
designed by those currently Involved with existing segments which
should be Incorporated into it, and should use existing
intranstate centers.
These centers should be capable of collating, maintaining, and
circulating information to the educational community. Local centers
should also evaluate regionally produced materials for Inclusion in
this system.
This information should be developed by a central clearinghouse
which would actively seek environmental materials produced by the
public and private sectors. The clearinghouse should also coordinate
the flow of information with the intranstate centers.
With regard to dissemination of information anJ technical
assistance to teachers, Congress participants recoimended to:
-^Improve development and dissemination of environmental education
information and materials to teachers and leaders. Participants
stated that AEE should establish an ad hoc committee to develop a
plan to review and report to the AEE Board of Directors on the
status of recommendations not less than biannually. The plan is
to include Input from academic, resource agencies, state
environmental education associations, and other interested
colleagues.
In a focus on the media, Congrf*ss participants believed that the
communication media remains one of our most powerful tools. They
recommended that:
We need to continue to build sophistication in the use of existing
and emergnig media (1) to promote awareness and understanding of
environmental issues, and (2) to promote environmental education
general and environmental education opportunities in particular.
From an analysis of these recommendations one may infer that there
is evolving an expanding definition of "Information Oessemination*'
from one-way flow of information about results of research to an
activist concept of using information to produce change. A viable
example of this concept is the current Department of Education's
National Diffusion Network. This model takes into account how
environmental educators behave when they need assistance. Hopefully
the results of our colleagues' recommendations will answer the
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questions: To whom do ervlronm^ntal ed'ication practitioners turn
when they need help? For what? How do we use the assistance?
and What were Its effects.?
Possible means of addressing our need to exchange Information are:
directories - for stable Information and data;
regular and timely newletters - for keeping up to date with
developments In environmental education; and
instant exchanges - to Inf rm environmental education practloners
and policy makers of important news of iMiedlate Interest.
The Information and dissemination recommendations of our
colleagues at the Coi^gress are relevant In terms of the needs of the
field. They re sound In terms about what Is known about delivery
assistance.
In addition* t;iey are feasible in terms cf being implemented and
maintained given the know-how and cofmltment of NAEE members and those
of us in the environmental education community with kindred Interests.
Complete proceedings of the Congress containing a set of
thirty-six recommendations are available In a two-part report. The
172 page report documenting the policies track Irxludes papers
presented at the Congress, resolutions, and recommendations frni
interest groups. This p^rt of the proceedings, entitled. The First
National Congress for Environmental Education Futures : Policies &
Practices . Is available for $5.85 from SHEAC Reference Center, 1200
Chambers Road, Room 310, Columbus, Ohio 43212.
Of Interest to practloners Is the report of the practices track
workshops held at the Congress contalnlr.g practical helps In
environmental education, from suggested teaching stratgies and student
activities, to techniques for Informing adults of the various action
plans and practices related to environment. This part of the
F/oceedings, "Reports of Workshops In Environmental Practices." was
published as a special Issue of the lournal of the American Nature
Study Society, Nature Study , Vol. 37, Numbers 3 and 4, which can be
purchased from ANSS, c/o John A. Gustafson, 5881 Cold Brook Road,
Homer, New Vork 13077.
2. "Clearinghouse Functions for Environmental Education".
(30hn F. Oisinger and Robert W. Howe, Director,
ERIC/SMtAC).
The Educational Resources Infornwition Center (ERIC) Is a
decentralized information system which collects, abst'^acts, indexes,
and disseminates printed materials In all areas of education. It does
not include audio-visual materials or scientific/technical
information; other data bases cover such materials. ERIC covers
"fugitive" documents, announced and indexed monthly through Resources
in education (RIE), and Journal oapers and articles, announced and
indexed monthly through Current Index to Journals in Education
(CUE). About 90 per cent of the RI£ documents fwy be obt lined from
ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS) in microfiche and/or paper
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copy; appr-xlinately 700 standing' ^rder custorors around the world
receive munthly shipments of r cRIC microfiche. ERIC provides no
microfiche or paper copy backu for CUE documents. Basic funding for
ERIC system is from the National Institute of Education* (NIE) ot the
U.S. Department of Education.
ERIC Is compuler-searchable by descriptors (key words), author^^.
and other search elements. Searches can be broadened or narrowed by
use of combinations of searce; elements. Many standing order
customers, and others, provide computer-search services, usually at a
price. ERIC also may be searched on-line through several commercial
vendors.
Each of ERIC'S 16 clearinghouses have specific areas of
responsibility; taken together, they "co^'tr* all areas of education,
with emphasis on ^formal* (school-related) activity. Through
September 1984. a total of 237.005 documents had been Indexed for RX£.
and 300.897 for £iOE. Of these. 7.^29 carry the descriptor
"environmental education." which another 3,000 or more are Indexed
under other envlron^'iienVrelated terms.
The ERIC Clearinghouse for Science. Mathematics, and Environmental
Education (ERIC/SMEAC) h^s hai responsibility within the system for
environmental education since 1971. ^Iven the non-precise
definitional nature of environmental education, many other ERIC
clearinghouses routinely process documt^nts of Interest to
environmental educators, using the same descriptors and procedures
system-wide.
Each ERIC clearinghouse Is chargtd with the responsibility of
developing and maintaining contacts In il: field, primarily In the
United States but to some extent Internationally, as part of Its
effort to access appropriate materials for the data base. Each
clearinghouse also dtvelops special publications. Including
Information analysis products, monographs Information Bulletins, and
Fact Sheets (Digests). Over the years. ERIC/SMEAC has published more
that 90 such Items In environmental education.
ERIC clearinghouses do not process all documents which come to
them, even In their assigned areas. One constraint Is budgetary;
there Is real cost associated with document processing, and mnre
documents are received than can be budgeted for processing. Selection
criteria Include accuracy of content, qualities of llterateness,
potential for contributing to the field, availability, appropriateness
to the d^^a base, and reproducibility. On the basis of one or more of
th^ above criteria. SMEAC rejects approximately 60 per cent of the
documents which It receives.
S^]EAC currently expends approximately $80,000 of Its annual NIE
bMd<|et of eni onmental education. Through cost-sharing, ihe Ohio
State University contributes more than $25.u00 aiinuelly In support of
SMEAC 's environmental education activities. Also. Sf!PAC spends more
than $17.0U0 of Its own funds, generated primarily from sales of
publications, for environmental education. Also. SMEAC currently
responds to more than 15.000 Inquiries •^^lated to environmental
education annually.
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Among other existing data bases which index and abstract other
useful materials are: National Center for Educational Media (NICEM),
National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Dissertation Abstract!,
Science Citations, Psychological Abstracts, and Agricola (U.S.
Department of Agriculture). There are many others; most are
computer-searchable. Back-up services (microfiche and/or paper copy)
vary widely, but all provide Information leading to sources of
dvXuments and other materials.
The above provides a summary of the current
information-availability situation; In a word, the amount of
information and resources existing and available is staggering.
Looking to the future, it would seem counter-productive to initiate,
from scratch, another entity to regenera^;e the environmental education
services provided by existing data bases. The point is, of course,
that much of what researchers and practitioners say they want is
already available through one or more data bases; the basic problem
is determining which data oase is the proper one to search for
specific needs. An additional problem Is gaining access to the data
base, then learning how to use it. A more insidious problem is in
determining gaps—that is, what is it that is wanted that cannot be
found from existing sources; then, how might that be found?
Two key factors needing consideration are linkages and
sustainability. Much of what a "National Center"* for environmental
education, or anything else, should do Is already being done by
someone, somewhere; the above descriptions, sketchy as they are,
suggests tue depth tf ERIC involvement and hints at other currently
existing components. The major effort of a "National Center," then,
should be In terms ot linking existing efforts, capitalizing on
existing resources, identifying gaps and determining how to fill them.
ERIC has been in existence for 18 years; it has dealt with
environmental education, per se, since "environmental education" was
recognized as a viable concern, and continues to do so. SMEAC has
been in existence as long as ERIC, and has been Involved with
environmental education from the beginning of tr^ ERIC system. The
details of SMEAC s operation have changed with ch<i..ging times and
circumstances, but its mission is still there, accomplished within the
constraints of the times. This would not have happened without
cost-sharing on the part of Ohi?> State, or without the generation of
local funds, primarily througi. Sdles of publications ("cost recovery,"
in effect, and in increasing percentages). If ERIC were not obligated
to operate in a cost-recovery mode, SMEAC (and the other
clearinghouses) could in fact provide the services which many seem to
feel they should receive without cost. Based on numbers and types of
requests received, SMEAC could in effect give away its current
$700,000 inventory in about three months--but then would no longer
exist, and thus would no longer provide services of any kind.
One of the ways that SMEAC has rhaintained its viability, at the
same time increasing its services to a segment of the field, has been
through the development and operation of an Instructional Resources
Center for the Office of Wct«*r Program Operations of the U.S.
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ErivMronmental Protection Agency. Operating under a series of grants
from EPA, SMEAC has developed a targeted data base dealing with water
quality from an Instructional point of view. This Is the Water
Quality Instructional Resourcas Information System (IRIS), also
computer-searchable. As part of Its arrangement with EPA, SHEAC also
publishes a b^-jwnth^y newsletter, for practitioners, and operates an
audio-visual lending library, along with a paper-copy reproduction
service for pertinent documents— training manyals and the like. SMEAC
Is In the process of becoming self-sustaining in this effort.
SMEAC and EPA Instructional Resources Center (IRC) activities have
already demonstrated that many people, agencies, and Institutions will
pay a reasonable cost for some services and materials. Interaction
with users and user surveys have been effective ways of det«rm1n1ng
these Interests and needs. Services built on a planned cost-recovery
program can be sustained and expanded In an Incremental way; SHEAC
and IRC have continued to Increase their services and materials
available every year.
ERIC, SMEAC, and IRC activities have also demonstrated that some
needed services and activities cannot be provided on a
dollar-for-dollar cost-recovery basis. Question-answering services
require substantial personnel time, material support, and
communication costs, tbt^^t costs are significant, and more support,
probably Federal and State, Is needed to respond to these demands.
Developing and maintaining an effective conmunlcatlon system to
various publics with respect to environmental education needs,
programs, materials, and oiher activities Is also costly; It has not
been fully developed, Additlonot funds are also needed to extend
current developments of such a system and to provide resources for
operating it.
SMEAC s activities tf the past 18 years and analyses of other
Information dissemination and communication programs lead to two other
observations .
1- Start-up costs are substantia"! In any program of this type,
often equalling those of more than one year of actual operation.
Many programs are Initiated with funds for start-up and perhaps
one year of operation; If they are not continued, the start-up
costs are essentially lost and must be duplicated to re-start
similar programs.
2- There Is a lag time between (a) establishment of an Information
service and user awareness, and (b) user awareness and user use of
the service. The duration of these "lags" depends on several
variables, IncluUIng the forms of communication used to provide
user awareness, the types of Information services available, the
ease of use of the service, <tnd the probability that the service
will continue to exist. If any costs are involved In learning to
use the service, tht expectaMon of continued existence Is
particularly Important.
It would seem that any plan for establishing a comprehensive
environmental education Information and materials clearli ghouse must
consider:
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1- The avoidance of creating entitles that duplicate existing
services, especially If those services are continuing ones;
2- linking to existing activities particularly those which are
long-term;
3- providing for Incremental growth rather than extensive
start-ups and re-starts;
4- providing for sustained operation, through a combination of
cost-recovery mec^ianlsms (which involves recognizing the costs
associated with provision of services and developing techniques
for recovering them), and external support for some activities;
5- the long-term Implications of any plan developed— how w1 11 It
change the behavior patterns of people, what will be dropped by
others In deference to the activities newly Initiated, what will
happen to those services if newly Initiated activities cease to
exist?
6- prioritization of needs, particularly needs of users; and
7- methods of demonstrating positive Impacts.
V.F. Panel: "Toward a National Center for Environmental Education".
PANEL CHAIR: John R. Paulk, Chief. Skills & Educational
Developro(>nt Branch, Division of Land & Economic Resources,
Tennessee Valley Authority, 1E35 Old City Hall Building,
Knoxvllle, Tennessee 37902, USA. PANELISTS: Alexander J.
Barton, Program Director, Office of Science & Engineering
Personnel & Education, National Science Foundation, 1800 G.
Street, NW. Washington, D.C. 20006, USA.; John J. Padalino,
Director, Poconc Environmental Center, Route 1, Box 268,
Dingmans Ferry, Pennsylvania 18328, USA..
Recommendation #1 of the First National Congress for Environmental
Education Futures calU for an Independent national center for
environmental education to promote environmental education training,
research, and comraunlcat'on. This recommendation echoes similar
statements made at other meetings. The panelists will discuss the
functions of a national center, the significance and Impact such a
center could have on the field of environmental education, current
opportunities and constraints, and key strategies for development and
support of the center.
1.- "National and Regional Centers for EE: Following
up on the Recommendations of the First National Congress
for Environmental Education Futures -Policies and
Practices". (John J. Padalino).
Fron the reports of the National Commlsslori on Excellence In
Education, the Education Commission of the States, and In the wake of
the plethora of studies on schooling In the United States, we learn
that there Is a crisis In education and something must be done. The
environment, too. Is In crisis. The quality of our life depends on
the state of the earth's atmosphere, oceans and lands and our
relationship to them. The classroom Is the place where problems of
education and envlronmtrt must be met.
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Those of us in the environmental education coamunlty have been
saying this for some time. The First National Congress for
Environmental Education Futures (August 1983) called attention to the
common issues confronting environmental management and education.
Both focus on future quality of life* The media, those who determine
what receives the public's attention, are picking up these causes.
Education and environment are again taking center stage. Now Is the
time for environmental educators to seize this opportunity to gain the
attention of the nation. We must know what to do with this
opportunity, what goals to pursue, and in effect how best to discharge
our responsibility. At the EE Congress August *83 our constituents
urged the Alliance for Environmental Education to seek major
qualitative improvements in envirionmental education.
DIALOG AND ACTION
To nurture environmental education, the Alliance for Environmental
Education has:
Sponsored national and regional conferences to exchange
information on environmental issues.
Developed and promulgated guidelines for operating sound
environmental education.
Advised the Federal government on its role in international
conferences on the environment.
Represented the non-government sector in oversight hearings and
implementation of the Environmental Education Act of 1970.
The members of the Alliance believe our highest priority is for
professionals in environmental education to reach a firm consensus on
concrete double measures and to mobilize our efforts to achieve them.
What measures? At the EE Congress our coneayues, in a unanimous
resolution asked the Alliance to work for an independent National
Center for Environmental Education. This center wouIq promote
environmental education training, research, and communication. Tn1s
request echoed similar statements made at previous national meetings.
The first recommendation that Congress participants made was:
AN INDEPENDENT NATIONAL CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION SHOULD BE ESTABLISHED THROUGH THE COORDINATING
EFFORTS OF THE ALLIANCE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION, IN
ORDER TO PROMOTE EE TRAINING, RESEARCH AND COMMUNICATION
WHICH INVOLVES THE VARIOUS GROUPS CONCERNED WITH
ENVIRONMENT...
This independent national center for environmental education would
have its goals to:
Promote cooperation and communication among professional
organizations and associations, government agencies, business,
labor, citizen groups, arid the research and education
communities.
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- Serve as a clearinghouse and Information dissemination center on
environmental education, training and communication*
- Promote and participate In. and be supportive of local, national
and International networks.
- Monitor and communicate progress and activity In EE, training,
research and communication.
- Provide current status feedback to Its network on achievements
and needs.
- Undertake appropriate action (I.e., publications, proyrams,
conferences, seminars, fnd legislation) to promote the
development and Implementation of EE training and communication
locally, regionally, nationally and Internationally.
- Assist In gaining financial anJ poUcy support of environmental
education.
- Serve as a mechanism for public participation In understanding
environmental decision-making.
- Serve as a referral center and repository for materials and
Information.
- Establish a communications network with teacher centers, state
and local education systems, non-governmenta'i organizations and
business/Industrial organizations Involved In environmental
education.
- Serve as a forum for environmental policy development. Issues
Identification and educational strategies formulation.
- Conduct educational research. Instructional materials
development, testing ami evaluation, and similar supportive
activities for environmental education.
- Conduct teacher/youth- leader training activities In
environmental education Including the validation of programs
developed by others.
- Encourage public accessibility to usable public and private land
sites for environmental education activities.
Further, 1t was felt that the Center should give first priority to
promoting and supporting the efforts of existing local, regional,
national and International operations. Networking and catalytic
action were Identified as the Cen^:er's first order of effort. The
Centp*- should move to galvanize artlon and provide leadership to the
environmentally concerned community.
The Center should have a core staff of full -time Individuals from
scientific, research, resource-abased and representative Federal
agencies, non-governmental organizations, state and local government,
business and Industry. Opportunities should ;»lso be afforded for
part-time and/or short term staff participation as needed to conduct
projects Initiated by the Center.
The Center's personnel would need modern computing facilities and
library retrieval services. Information compiled by the Center's
personnel should be available In p; Int form and through subscription
by other computing and referencing systems.
Constraints that such a national center mu«^t deal with Include:
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A- A new organizational structure In addition to the Alliance for
Environmental Educatio Is bein] sought.
8- Implementation of this recommendation would stretch existing
Alliance funds and would require new funds.
The Alliance president has called for the development of a
position paper on the goals and vision of the National Center, a needs
assessment, staffing requirements, policies and procedures, and a
timeframe for establishing a National Center should the environmental
education community deem It a doable measure*
The Alliance board Is planning to convene a management team to
Investigate other successful centers and design a marketable
management scheme, budget process, and evaluation Instrument for a
National Center for Environmental Education
We are promoting discussion of the Independent National Center
concept among governmental, educational and Industrial leaders and
other appropriate Individuals who are In a position to support the
plan either directly or through other sources*
Our goal Is to formulate an achievable fiscal and operational plan
for the Initiation and maintenance of the National Center within the
next year as we seek funding from private and public sources.
It Is our Intent to present a proposal to appropriate government
offices and other associations and organizations.
The Alliance has accepted responsibility for exploring functions
of a national center, the significance as well as the Impact such a
center could have on the field of environmental education, including
current opportunities and constraints, as well as strategies for
development and support of the center*
A national demonstration area and regional demonstration areas for
environmental education should be established to:
- Oemon<:trate the Involvement of all sectors of the American
public In the education process.
- Demonstrate the economic, recreation and tourism benefits that
can be associated with environmental education programs.
- Bring together In one location In each region, successful
programs for demonstration, refinement and application.
- Provide an opportunity for scholars and practitioners to study
<i>>nllcat1ons and methods Involved In environmental education.
- Demonstrate the Inter relatedness of education. cnn«nun1ty.
business and natural re-'^urces In environmental education
programs.
A network of regional centers of environmental education should be
established to:
- Act as a clearinghouse and Information center in environmental
education.
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- Pror:ote cooperation among environmental education associations,
Fe^ieral governmenr offices, citizen groups, youth organizations,
and the scientific, research, and education communities.
- Provide referral service for environmental education
consultations*
- Support and participate In an International network of
environmental education centers,
- Monitor and report on the status of environmental education.
- Monitor and report on emrglng Issues In environmental education.
* Establish a communications network with teacher centers, state
and local education systems, youth organizations, and
non-governmental organizations Involved In environmental
education*
- Assist In planning for environmental education research and
development.
- Serve as a referral center and repository for environmental
education materials ^nd Information.
rhe EE Cdngress co-sponsors, too, are working on initiatives of
environmental education, some national In scope and some at the grass
outs. For example, the National Science Teachers Association
established a Task Force for defining excellence In environmental
education and charged it to develop a position paper defining "desired
state" condition; for environmental education. A prominent state
Initiative for environmental education Is occurring In Pennsylvania
where two cabinet secretaries agree that environmental education Is a
top priority within the state. The Secretaries of Education and
Environmental Resources established a 37-member task force to draft a
master plan for environmental education for Pennsylvania by the end of
this year.
The momentum will grow. John F. Kennedy charged, "Human resources
and natural resources are Inexorable, Intertwined, and tomorrow's
children. If they are to manage this land well, will need the
precision uf scientifically attuned minds, coupled with a sensitivity
to their fellow men (and women) and creatures." Our approach to this
challenge should be neither optimistic nor pessimistic. Neither
unfounded optimism nor undue pessimism provides a firm basis for
problem solving. Realism Is more appropriate.
In the future, while consolidating past gains and assuring a
strong environmental presence, the Alliance for Environmental
Education Is active nationwide. It:
- Provioes materials and services which will promote environmental
literacy among our citizenry.
- Plans national and affiliate strategics for environmental
education for the next twenty years.
' Develops and promotes guidelines to help state and local
officials meet the need for growth and development without
disrupting delicate ecosystems.
- Attra.ts media Interest In environmental concerns.
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Let us build our consensus about the measures that are doable,
while we have the attention of the ration and, together, get on with
our task.
John 3. Padalino, Director
Pocono Environmental Education Center
RD 1. Box 268
Dingmans Ferry, PA 18328
(717)828-2319
VI. A. Backes, David. "The Air Ban War: Sigurd F, Olson and the Fight
to Ban Airplanes from the Roadless Area of Minnesota's Superior
National Forest*. Department of Agricultural Journalism,
University of Wisconsin, 440 Henry Mall, Madison, Wisconsin
53706, USA.
In the late ''930s, a handful of northeastern Minnesota pilots
offered fly-in fishing trips into Superior National Forest's protected
roadless area. Most conservationists paid little notice. They were
busy expanding the boundaries of both the forest and roadless area,
looi'ing ahead to the day when the Quetico-Superior region could be
managed as an International Peace Memorial Forest.
The Quetico-Superlor, encompassing nearly 15,000 square miles
along the Ontario*Minnesota border, was consindered the finest canoe
country on the continent. The land had been carved by Ice Age
glaciers. Its legends were carved by the OJibway, Sicux, and several
generations of fur traders known as "voyageurs." One could start near
the small city of Ely, Minnesota, and travel by canoe through this
vast labyrinth of jagged lakes and Interconnecting rivers north to
Hudson Bay, or northwest alonq Saskatchewan's Churchill River to Lake
Athabasca, Great Bear Lake an^ the Arctic coast.
The first attempts to conserve the region began near the turn of
the century, after the iron and steel trade had established a score of
towns and the timber barons had cut the forest. In 1909, Canada
created Quetico Provincial Park, and the United States established the
adjacent Superior National Forest. The 1920s and 1930s marked
successful battles against opening the canoe country to roads and
hydropower development. Also, the U.S. Congress passed legislation to
prevent shoreline logging, and President Franklin b. Roosevelt created
the President's Quetico-Superlor Committee to ork with the U.S. and
Canadian governments toward the establishment of an interna^^ional
wilderness area.
While expanding the Superior National Forest at the end of the
1930s, the Forest Service passed up opportunities to buy some of the
many inholdings that dotted the roadless area. Meanwhi ^e, the
development of reliable small aircraft made possible a new kind of
tourist trade — fly--ln fishing. People who owned la^id in the heart
of the roadless area saw a golden opportunity, and began building
fly-in resorts in the wilderness. Surrounded by federal land, with
air travel the only easy access, they had built-in monopolies on their
own sanctuar^ies.
158
The first two resorts were built In 1940, but the real boom began
In 1945, as World War II drew to a close. Only a few conservationists
had seen the possibility before the war, but now such groups as the
President's Quetlco-Superlor Committee and the Izaaak Walton Le^^gue
sprang to action. They staged two national campaigns — first, to get
Congress to pass a bill authorizing Forest Service acquisition of the
Inholdlngs; second, to ban private planes from flying Into the canoe
country.
To get the acquisition bill passed, they needed to work out a form
of compensation, agreeable to the local business comnunlty and county
commissioners, for taking land off the tax rolls* But northeastern
Minnesotans had grown to distrust all forms of outside control, due to
years of sour relations wi. absentee-owned mining companies and
down-state politicians, and they demanded more coi^)evi5at1on than
Congress would give.
Events in Canada made the bill's passage urgent* The only
Canadian access to Quetlco Park was a railway along Its northern
boundary. Consequently, nearly all of the park*s visitors were
American, outfitted by Minnesota residents. Businessmen from the
small Ontario towns near tne park complained that Minnesota resort
owners were getting all the financial benefit and paying none of the
upkeep. They pressed for access, and In 1946 officials opened several
customs stations to encourage air travel Into the park. Plans were
made to lease cabin sites, and there w^'e rumors of a road that would
cut through the center of the park.
To American conservationists, such development meant the end of
any chance for an International wilderness. The Quetlco — which was
completely government-owned — had always been held Inviolate. But
the Americans received little sympathy at first from officials of
Ontario's Department of Lands and Forests, who said the United States
should preserve Its own side before expecting much uf Canada. In the
months ahead the official tone softened, and the Canadians promised to
held back all development in the Quetlco until October 1948, giving
the Americans a chance to prove their sincerity by passing the
acquisition bill.
Nearly all of 1947 passed without any progress In the compensation
talks with local leaders, and the bill was tied up In Congress. The
conservationists needed someone who could break the logjam in Congress
and a'^ouse public opinion against airplanes and resorts In the canoe
country. They needed someone who knew the wilderness well and had
contacts with supporters on bofU sides of the border. They turned to
Sigurd F. Olson.
The 48-year-old Ely resident had participated In the fights
aqalnst roads and dams, and was one of the few who had foreseen the
airplane problem before the war. He had guided canoeists for over 20
years and knew the wilderness Intimately. Educated at the University
of Wisconsin and the University of I.llnols, Olson had a master's
degree 1n plant and animal ecology. He had recently resigned as dean
of Elys Junior College to devote full time to his life's desire
writing about wilderness. Perhaps the one thing that meant more to
him was the canoe country. Olson agreed to spearhead the fight, and
began work In January 1948.
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159
To meet Canada's deadline, the Americans had to get the
acquisition bill passed during the next session of Congress* Olson
generated national publicity through articles In The Christian Science
Monitor , Sports Afield . Nature Magazine . American Forests and other
publications. The President's Quetico-Superlor Committee sent copies
of his articles to newspapers throughout the Midwest and to outdoor
writers across the country. Editorials In favor of the acquisition
bill soon appeared, and letters poured in to Congress. Olson also
worked to get the county commissioners behind a conv)ensat1on plan that
was agreeable to Congress. After a last-minute showdown he got their
support, and the bill became law just before Congress adjourned for
the summer.
The conservationists then put their full weight into the airplane
fight. They pressed for an executive order from President Truman that
would prevent private planes from landi'^a in or flying less than 4.000
feet over the roadless area.
To have a chance of success, they needed a good show of ^ocal
support, but in the small mining towns of northeastern Minnesota the
issue divided families and broke friendships. This was especially
evident in Ely. A handful of men who represented the airplane
interests uere attempting to gain political control of the town. One
of their key strategies was to control the flow of information. They
gained control of the Chamber of Comhierce, the weekly newspaper and
the radio station, and used these to spread rumors that played upon
local fears of outside control. They also attempted to intimidate
those who favored an airplane ban. A number of people received
threats, and a bomb exploded in a canoe outfitter's backyard.
Olson helped generate local support through a 30-m1nute, color
documentary film, "Wilderness Cc'^oe Country." He wrote, directed and
starred in the film, which was produced by the President's
Quedtico-Superior Committee. By April 1949 ~ three months after the
film's debut — - 75 northeastern Minnesota civic groups had gone on
record favoring the air ban, countering thf) opponents' claims that the
area was united against it.
In addition to the film, OUon wrote articles for American and
Canadian magazines, formed a Canadian Quetico-Superior Council to
build support for the international wilderness, and worked in
Washlfvjton to <:ee Miat the airspace reservation request made it to
rTesident Truman's desk. T«^uman signed the reservation on Dec. 17.
1949. Locil resort owners subsequently set up a court test, but the
U.S. distrii^t and appeals courts ruled against them. The U.S. Supreme
Court turned dc^ their request for a final appeal in October 1953.
The airplane battle turned Olson from a junior college dean into
an Internationally-known leader of the wilderness preservation
movr^ment. During tut next 30 years he served as president of the
National Parks Association and The Wilderness Society, and as advisor
to the Secretdry of the Interior, participating in wilderness and
national park battles all over the United Ctates. It also gave new
life to his dream of being a writer. His first book. The Singip g
Wilderness , was published 'n 1956, and quickly made the New York Times
bestseller list. He wrote eight more before hi^ death in January 1982.
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The airplane battle's Injportance extended beyond the preservation
of the canoe coi-ntry. It demonstrated that two countries could work
together to protect a common heritage, in the United States, It gave
the Forest Service Its first authority to buy land for purposes other
than timber production or waterrhed protection. A U.S. President had
taken unprecedented action to preserve a wilderness area, and the
courts. In upholding his action, declared wilderness preservation a
government purpose. Behind all of this was a groundswell of public
opinion that focused national attention on the need for wilderness —
attention that continued to grow in the following decades and resulted
In our national wilderness preservation system. As The New York Times
said In an editorial praising the district court decision that upheld
the air ban, the country had decided It could afford to preserve
wilderness, that 'the gift of tranquility, wherever found. Is beyond
price."
VI. B. Cook, Don. "The Acid Raid Forecast: Moderate Precipitation,
Visibility Limited". Associate Director, Acid Rain Project,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, O.C., USA.
It Is a pleasure to return to this group after a long absence to
review some of the science and policy issues related to the acid
deposition phenomenon. I have always considered NAEE to be the
epitome of effective environmental learning In terms of teaching
ecology, the human Impacts on the environment and— most
critically- the corrective steps needed to protect ecosystems and
hu.Tian healt.1.
The fundamental barrier to a U.S policy on controlling the acid
rain phenomenon is that proven damages due to acid deposition that c:n
now be stated amount to only tens of millions of dollars, whereas many
of the control strategies won id cost tens of billions of dollars. The
high cost of controls and the uncertainty of the science combine to
make a consensus on a public policy difficult and Illusive.
The hard evidence of acid rain damage In the U.S. Is limited to
200 to 300 lakes that have been acidified and have lost their f1sh
populations. This Is equivalent to 2 to 3X of the surface water area
of lakes solely In Heu York state. In the opinion of Jerald L.
Schnoor, an aquatic effects specialist and professor of environmental
engineering at the University of Iowa, the upper limit of lakes likely
to be acidified In the U.S. Is about 1000. However, fchey are among
ths most pristine and beautiful of lakes.
At present, EPA does not have a reliable estimate of overall
damages. That Inforiiwtlon Is being collected for the 1985 assessment
of acid deposition effects, which will provide a physical Inventory of
the damages. Of the three categories of possible damages (aquatic,
terrestrial and man-made materials), aquatic effects are probably of
the lowest dollar magnitude.
The other two categories are mere likely to be In the billions of
dollars, If provable. Hard estimates of the damage to forests depend
on more convincing evidence that the Increased tree mortality and
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161
reduced annual growth now seen can be linked to acid deposition* For
materials built In the hun;an environment, the rates of deterioration
of various exposed coatings and surfaces are undsr study and could be
very large.
The major question on effects Is: Have they peaked with the
acidification of 200 to 300 lakes or Is there much more bad news to be
delivered. Many fear that the pattern sten In West German forests,
where 34X of trees showed some damage In 1983 ana SOX showed some
damage In 1984, win be found In the U.S.
The struggle to forge an acid rain policy hinges on ^ handful of
critical Issues that we can briefly examine:
Safe Target Loadings : Usually stated In kilograms per hectare
per, year, the target- loading measurement attempts to determine what
level of deposition can be sustained without causing aquatic and
terrestrial effects. The current discussion among scientist has
centered on a level of 20 kilograms per hectare per year (equivalent
to 18 pounds/acre/year) of wet sulfate deposition, but areas of the
Adirondacks receive more than 40 kg per hectare per year. There Is
now little scientific certainty upon which to base a standard.
The Linearity of the Atmospheric Chemistry Is another Issue. The
atmosphere can be viewed as a large-scale chemical reactor that cooks
and cools pollutants In liquid, gaseous and solid particle forms.
Although sulfur Is widely believed to be the dominant component of
acid compounds, the role of many other components may be critical.
Ammonia, hydrogen peroxide, ozone and volatile organic compounds also
are fact:>rs that may play Important roles In determining the rate of
conversion of pollutants to acid rain. One theory Is that sulfur may
not be the limiting chemical In the process. There may already be an
excess of unconverted sulfur dioxide whose conversion to acid Is
limited only by the shortage of some catalytic trigger such as ozone
or hydrogen peroxide. The Implication of nonlinear chemistry Is that
a reduction 1n sulfur emissions may not result In a proportionate drop
In acid deposition.
The Issue of the Importance of wet vs^ dry^ deposition Is another
question. Since acidic compound are deposited In wet and dry forms, a
control strategy needs tc deal with both. Some scientists think wet
material Is perhaps half of total deposition; others say two thirds.
However, the regular measurement of dry deposition on a regional scale
Is still In the developmental stage.
Stm another question Is whether the contaminants come from
distant or nearby sources . Acidic compounds appear to be transported
a long distance because they are detected In remote, previously
pristine areas that lack nearby pollution sources at an Intermediate
distance (300 km) or a long range distance (1000 km) has been
virtually Impossible.
These and other persistent scientific uncertainties are a barrier
to setting policy on acid rain with guaranteed results-^-^somethlng that
politicians are looking for when considering costs as highas those
require: to build a second nation-wide Interstate highway system or
orbit a permanent space station.
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162
Another th'ng the politician are confronting Is a political fervor
combined with an emotional tension thit Is strong and getting
stronger. In the pollutant emitting states, the belief U: What's a
little acid among friends, when we all eiijoy the same benefits of
tires, refrigerators and electricity from the Midwest? Hith a slight
delay » we can avoid ser1ou< mistakes and cut costs, they believe.
But to Canada and New England, the Issue Is fairness. Forget the
sc1ence~v«e have a right to be free of having adds dumped In our
backyards. The Midwest must stop the effluvia now.
From my viewpoint, only two regulatory policies make sense now
given the scientific uncertainties.
The first Is the targeted emission reduction tUt EPA's
Administrator William Ruckelshaus proposed to the Cabinet In September
of 1983 but that failed to gain Administration support. The estimated
cost of $2 billion to $3 billion Is substan^'il but far ^^Zi than that
of most Congressional measures. The Intent . his program Is to
jncentrate emissions cuts In 10 or 12 states. This would address the
Mnearlty issue by establishing the rata at which sulfur deposition Is
decreased by cutting sulfur emissions In an area directly upwind from
a target 7one. It should Improve areas ^hat now have the greatest
deposition levels #ind that also have lakes and forests at greatest
risk, such as the Adirondacks. Even with an Immediate decision to
Implement the targeted :*educt1on approach, technologies such as
flue-gas desulfurlzatlon or coal cleaning could not be put Into place
until 199C. Ruckleshaus has oescrlbed this as a minimal Insurance
policy that we sb'^jid adopt while the research cottlnues.
A second measure that would help to bring about the targeted
emission reduction and help the Federd deficit Is a tax on fossil
fuel combu tlon. The tax could take effect much sooner than 1990 and
would have the benefit of promoting many of the non-hardware
approaches to reducing emissions (fuel switching, fuel cleaning,
turning the dirtiest plants on last and the early retirement of older
facilities). The tax would also give an edge to solar ard other
renewable energy sources that cause little or no pollution.
The tax should be set at relatively low level for all fossil fuels
but carry a surcharge for those that have sulfur. The sulfu. charge
should be prograsslve and should not apply to sources that already
have reduced emissions below 1 pound of sulfur per million Btu.
The fuel tax could create a fund for use at a future ti^ze to help
emitters of all acid forming compounds to Install controls. If
emerging research reveals that nitrugen ox1des--for which only 11rr;ted
control technologies now ex1st--are a serious proble^j, the fund could
be used to muke research and construction grants for that technology.
The main benefit of a fossil fuel tax Is that. Immediately but
gradually. It would tilt Industry's practice away from using the
highest polluting fuels without risking another "tall stack" type of
mistake. (Up to the early 1970 s, tall stacks were considered Ideal
for dispersing pollutants t;:^ sate levels. Now It appears that ihey
mj^ct sulfur al levels that Increase the production of acid-forming
compounds.) Several t^nierglng technologies, such as the limestone
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Injection multistage burner* hold the promise of providing relatively
cheep pollution controls (about $40 per kilowatt hour of Installed
capacity vs. up to $280 per kwh for conventional flue-gas
desulfurlzatlon)*
Many of these technologies are costly* but U«S* scU^nce policy
needs to assume that something like the ^orest decline of Central
Europe and the aquatic damages In ttie Nordic countries will occur in
North Amer1ca--w1th the hope of being happily wrong. There Is little
chance that air pollution exposures thjic North American ecosystems now
sustain will fall significantly In the next six to etght years. Some
pollutants such as ozone and nitrogen oxides will Increase* At
present sulfur emissions In the U«S* amount to two thirds pound per
person per day and nitrogen oxide emissions are at one third pound*
These pollutant levels* while apparently tolerable to humans» may
still be too hazardous for forests and lakes to maintain equilibrium*
The United States needs a greatly expanded and more comprehensive
research program for ecosystems and environmental protection closer to
the scale of research in the economic sectors of space, agriculture
a^id health. Current year expenditures on acid deposition research are
$55 million for the Federal program of which $36 million Is for EPA*
This research could easily be tripled and still not cover major
uncertainties. This con^ares with a cost of up to $100 million for
capital costs of sulfur removed! at just one coal-fired power plant.
In 19G3, Theodore Roosevelt said In dedicating Yosemlte Valley as
a National Park: "We are not building this country of ours for a
day— It Is to last through the ages.* Only 81 years later. U*S.
efforts to master the science of ecosystem damage are fal !1ng far
short of that needed to protect major con^onents of our national
wealth.
Continental housekeeping and maintenance should be a first
priority. Now as we cipproach 1992 and contemplate a permanently
orbiting space station to commemorate t! » voyage of Columbus 500 years
earlier, there Is a Oisturblno point to ponder* While that space
station may be orbiting over tne continent he found for the Europeans*
It may j circling over dying forests and lifeless waters* We have
only au^ut half a decade before projected nitrogen oxide and ozone
level" In North Anierlca reach levels found In Central Europe today*
The alarming fact Is that kn-nwledge of th* trends* causes, effects*
and corrective steps for forest 'lecllne* acid rain and lake
acidification is at a point comparable to medicine at the turn of the
century-few proven treatments are available.
No industrialized country or continent has reached a point in
which its pollution controls have been brought into balam.e with what
its ecosystems can bear. The U.S* end Canada have perhaps the be^t
chance in the world to unravel the scientific questions. The other
continents are either too politically diverse or Ideologically
resistant. f1ndii»j the r^ght mix of controls that will correct the
add rain phenomenon is something we could d'^ for the world and for
humankind.
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VI .C. Lanfried, Steven E. " Update from the S ub^- ontlnent: Efforts to
Save the Siberian Crane ". The Big House, Route One, Highway 59
East, Evansvllle, Wisconsin 53536, USA.
The continuing saga of the last 36 Siberian Cranes wirtering in
the Indian Subcontinent has a new chapter.
Efforts to save this remnant flock f'-»m p^tlnctlon were given
renewed hope b« recently Implemented legislation In northern Pakistan
and new research proposals In India. These major breakthroughs are
largely the fruits of a multidimensional four year program of
environmental education detailed by my 1983 MAEE keynote address In
Yspllanti .
The new laws in the Northwest Frontier Province are designed to
protect Siberian Cranes and two other crane species as well.
Baluchistan, the NWFP's neighboring province to the west, has stepped
up Its attempts to prohibit border crossings by crane hunters from the
NWFP bound for remote areas of that province. Botn provinces joined
with sind Province in outlawing the hunting of Siberian Cranes.
Siberian Cranes transit these provinces along as yet undiscovered
seasonal migration routes between resting areas at Lake Abl-Estada in
Afghanistan and wintering grounds at the Keoladeo Natural Park In
Bharatpur, India. Likely migration paths take them through crane
hunting areas In Pakistan.
The suspected pressure on Siberian Cranes Is a result of the live
catching and shooting of more numerous Demoiselle and Common Cranes by
an estimated 2,000 Pathan tribesmen who practice the sport In northern
Pakistan. These hunters catch their prey by throwing lead-weighted
cords over the long, outstretched wings of descending cranes lured
toward them at night by caged decoy cranes. Between 1,500-2,500
cranes are live caught yearly in this manner. (Uncaged decoy cranes
are also used by Pathans In Afghanistan to lure migrating cranes
toward hunters who shoot the birds rather than catch them.
Unfortunately, the unrest In Afghanistan has made research on the
magnitude of crane hunting there virtually Impossible.)
Announced on February 28, 1983 by provincial governor, Lt. General
Fazle Haq, the new crr.ne protection laws In the NWFP area significant
step for conservation in Pakistan generally. Tom Roberts, a
distinguished British naturalist and longtime resident of Pakistan,
feels the developments are "very important- because It Is such a tough
problem Involving long term educa*:1on to change attitudes."
The new laws were carefully drafted, for the first time In the
NWFP, crane hunters are required to obtain hunting licenses to pursue
their sport. Because of the Impossibility of licensing Individual
hunters In the remote areas Involved, licenses are sold to crane
camps. Camp hunting fees for the spring are 1,000 rupees; half that
1n the fad. The differential In fees Is Intended to create financial
disincentives for spring nunting and to provide an educational tool to
Impress hunters with the Importance of allowing the cranes to
successfully migrate to breeding grounds to replenish their dwindling
numbers.
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In order to discourage hunters from exporting their sport any
further, the new laws Impose a tax of Rs. 500 for each crane
transporter* out of the province. Lest hunters be tempted to cross
Into neighboring Afghanistan (only fifty miles away), a fee of Rs.
2.000 will be assessed for cranes exported out of the country.
Commercial crane trade within Pakistan Is outlawed; as Is the use of
firearms for crane hunting.
Thoughtful environmental action Involves careful planning. In
this case, the timing of publicity regarding the new crane hunting
legislation was of strategic Importance. According to Mumtaz Malik,
Chief Conservator of Wildlife In the NWFP, "the new crane hunting
restrictions were purposely announced at the last »1nute so hunters
could not organize before the CMinencement of the crane hunting
season. By the time It was clear the laws would be enforced, Vhe
hunting season was half over and many camps did not go out."* a
result, Hal Ik estimates that "hunting was reduced In the spring by at
least one-half."
Practical political strategies must be balanced with other
realities. Experience indicates that th<? effectiveness of new hunting
regulations in developing countries, or developed countries for that
matter. Snproves when hunters are given incentives to cooperate with
conservation measures. Recognizing this, the new laws waive crane
possession fees for the llfetim^^ of any crane produced in captivity.
In addition, each hunter who provides a healthy freshly caught crane
to NWFP wildlUe staff for color banding and release back into the
wild (for crane migration studies) will receive a two year waiver of
possession fees for one of his captive cranes. In addition to
providing incentives to hunters, it is hoped these provisions will
also help reduce the depletion of the wild flocks.
The laws are an outgrowth of educational and lobbying efforts with
conservationists, top governmental officials, forest and wildlife
departments initiated by this author in December. 1981. They are also
a result of studies of the cr^ne catching in March and April. 1983.
Research was conducted by provincial wildlife departments in
cooperation with the World Wildlife Fund-Pakistan, the Pakistan Forest
Institute, and the Special Foreign Currency Program of the U.S. Fish &
Wildlife Service.
Legislative wildlife protection is only as goi>a as the degree to
which a broad spectrum of people affected by the laws understand and
support them. As a result, broadly based educational activities have
been initiated in Pakistan to bolster support for the new
legislation. These include briefings for key national, provincial,
and local officials ultim^,tely responsible for enforcement of the
laws; educational programs conducted in the field for friends and
relatives of prominent crane hunters; training sessions fn: wildlife
staff; and wide-spread publicity of the program and its goals. Not
surprisingly, some sophistication has be-^n required in tailoring
messages for differences in the pe-^specti ve? and educational level of
these and other target audiences.
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166
Tom Roberts 1s enthusiastic about developments. He feels Pakistan
has taken "a step forward from which there won't be a full retreat.
The hunting will go on for some time but you've got all the top
government officials In the Frontier, including the governor and chief
secretary, conscious of the problem In a way they never were before."
Furthermore, Roberts believes that Important long-term spin-off
benefits from the project may have nothing to do with cranes: "If you
can make progress here, you will automatically open a lot of other
gates. It's really a pilot project In getting at grass roots
conservation in Pakistan."
In India, too, progress Is being made. Effective counts of Sarus
Cranes at Keoladeo National Park In Bharatpur In April, 1983 and 1984,
have Increased the awareness of crucial importance of the sanctuary
for the survival rj the Siberian Crane. Organized by the local
natural history group, the crane counts brought scientists from the
Eombay Natural Society, park staff, proressors and students cf a
nearby college together for the first time to learn about cranes,
wetlands, and protection of the environment. The possibility of
expanding crane counts elsewhere In Rajasthan and to other Indian
states 1s under consideration.
More Importantly, a high level meeting was convened in New Delhi
1n August to discuss the feasibility of a ground survey of possible
Siberian Crane stop-over places In India. The scientific and
political wisdom of capturing a few Siberian Cranes for
radio- telemetry tracking was also raised. Participating In the
discussions were chief conservators of wildlife from the five northern
states through which Siberian Cranes may migrate. Plans are now on
the drawing boird for a ground survey during the spring 1985
migration. Ol5cuss1ons of a sister project have occured In Pakistan.
In each case, ;he goal is to piggy-back research and educational
activities by enlisting the participation of diverse groups In the
project.
Meanwhile, a flow of prtss releases, newspaper articles, radio and
television reports In local and regional dialects, and the release of
Siberian Crane stamps have increased awareness of the plight of the
bird at all levels of society in both countries. Several wildlife
organizations, including tne International Council for Bird
Preservation, have funded the development of an audio-visual program
designed to strengthen these efforts. The slide show will be released
by national organizations of the World Wildlife Fund In India,
Pakistan, and Nepal In Urdu, Hindi, and/or English to maximize its
effectiveness .
Many challenges He a.i^id. Sustaining interest In the project is
absolutely essential. This Is no small order In an area bereft with
political, economic, and bureaucratic problems. (Author's note: a
case In point s the death of Indira Gandhi which has put Siberian
Crane ground "^vey and radlotagging proposals on temporary hold.)
Intensive popu.jtlon pressures In the area have obviously onerous
economic and environmental Implications. Longst nding hostlMtles
between Pakistan and Its neighbors to the north and south further
complicate the situation.
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Broadening the th1n ranks of the conservation Infrastructure Is
another major challenge, partlcelaryly In Pakistan. Because wildlife
has tra-lltlonally been relegated to appendage status under the forest
department there, the curriculum at the Pakistan Forest Institute
finds wildlife as only one-half of one of cne jo courses required for
a baccalaureate degree In forestry. The lack of any degree program In
wildlife management In Pakistan means that no more than a handful of
people have received extensive training In wildlife riianagewent. These
Individuals are widely dispersed throughout the country and several
key persons are at or near retirement age. A clear need exists to
send environmentally sensitive people overseas for training, but,
ironically, this sometimes requires that fledgling programs are left
to less competent staff with neither the expertise nor the Interest to
keep them afloat until the person returns to the country.
Development of environmental conscientiousness has another
paradoxical effect: awareness of one problem Invariably leads to
awareness of other problems. In this case, cranes provided an
opportunity for individuals to express concerns about environmental
problems In other areas. Ensuing contacts often find outside
expertise and resources being drawn In those directions. Whether the
crane project will retain Its current priority remains to be seen.
Whatever the case, however, there Is something to be said for the
old addage about one hand washing the other. Consciousness raising
and Institution building are slow processes and a multiplier effect
can develop which necessitate temporary reallocation of resources to
other projects. At the same time. It Is Important to recognize the
need to nurture proje^.ts along until enough Interest Is generated In
them to allow them to stand on their own.
In the meantime, the Siberian Crane's brush with extinction can
serve as a lighthouse to draw peoples' attention to more fundamental
environmental Issues. In a real sense, the cranes serve as nature's
barometers; as an early warning system about the status of wetlands
along their International migratory paths. Studying and trying to
protect them teaches us much about man and his abuse of their wetland
homes^-^and the forests on which many wetlands ultimately depend.
Experience with this project also provides Insights Into the Intricate
social context In which environmental action occurs-- and the
Importance of recognizing that future success depenas on our ability
to consistently reach diverse target audiences with effective
conservation messages.
Developments of the last year offer hope for the future of the
Common and Demoiselle Cranes, If not for the Siberian Crane. At the
same time, they remind us how fragile and sensitive our efforts are to
the whims of fate and the accumulated effects of man's unthinking
exploitation of Increasingly scarce natural resources. Pers1sttr.ce
provides many lessons, Ideas for more effective strategies for
constructive action ... and few guarantees.
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VI. D. McClaren, MUton. " »ted1at1nq the Unthinkable — Discussing the
Problem of Nuclear km$ with Students ". Faculty of Education,
Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6,
Canada.
This Is an era when many people feel as If they are living under
the constant threat of nuclear conflict. For adolescents, these
feelings are often translated Into a syndrome of hopelesseness,
apathy, and futility. Many adults, teachers and parents alike, feel
unable to negotiate with adolescents to help them deal with these
feelings. Assurances that, "Everything will be alright" are not
helpful and silence may be taken as affirmation that the situation Is
hopeless and that nuclear devastation is Inevitable.
This presentation explored soinc avenues by which adults may
mediate the issue of nuclear arms and the threat of global catastrophe
In ways which neither Ignore the seriousness of the problems, nor
surrender to a blind fatalism while consigning total responsibility
for finding a solution to someone else. The paper developed a
definition of the mediation process In terms broadly related to the
field of "Problem Solving", and proposed that while the problems of
the arms race, nuclear arras, and war In general are grave, they are
also worthy of our best critical and creative thinking. To engage In
this we need to learn how to gather Information, to evaluate sources
and arguments, to recognize bias, dogma, propaganda, and to attempt to
create a new vision of a peaceful world, as well as of the processes
which might create it.
In the paper, war ger se, was seen as a generic human problem.
One of the unfortunate side effects of our concern for nuclear war Is
thct other forms of International and denominational armed conflict
have been "trivialized" because they don't seem to have the planetary
consequences of nuclear war. We also need to learn to develop empathy
for people whose lives have been devastated In "brushfire" wars or In
"police actions" and to learn to think about avenues for *-he
r olutlon of conflict which does not entail the e*- »rt«,c ^f arras and
the death of humans.
The focus of the presentation was on the propos .ion the "vision"
and "Invention" are coupled to objectives and effort In the resolution
of any problem. Humans need to "re-vision* their Ideas about
conflict, victory, security, and defence In an era of blocldal and
planetocldal weapons. Teaching strategies and resource materials were
explored, as well as ways of avoiding political and Ideological
polarization.
VI. E mcKone, Thomas E. "Tracking the Global Fate of Toxic Elements
from Energy Systems". Staff Scientist, University of
California, lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 761 Pine
Street, Livermore, California 94550, USA.
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All energy systems Involve alterations of the geochemistry of a
local, regional or global environment* Huch of the recent literature
on the environmental problems associated with carbon fuels has focused
on two outstanding aspects: the Increasing concentration of carbon
dioxide In the atmosphere, and acid precipitation* However, there Is
a third aspect that Is receiving Increasing attention and is the focus
of this paper. This Issue Involves the liicrtased mobilization by
fossil fuel cycles of toxic elements from the earth'* crust to tha
surface environment. The paper addressed some ways In which energy
production can alter the chemical cycles of toxic elements within
natural systems. Particular attention Is given to methods for
visualizing and teaching about environmental chemistry. The
"landscape prism" Is presented as a tool for representing the earth's
surface environment In terms of the Important systems through which
mass and chemical exchange occur. These systems Include the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the biosphere, soil and rock as well as
Industrial societies. Particular consideration Is given to how
large-scale combustion of coal In this century has disturbed the
quasl-equlllbrlum of trace elements In the environment and to the
likely consequences for human health. The role of the Increasing
global acidity In rain Is consloered as a change that could further
Intensify the mobilization of toxic elements In our environment.
The components of the earth's surface are linked by chemical
cycles to form a system In which there Is chemical balance. Each
element has an "environmental chemlcai cycle," which can be mappJ In
terms local, regional, or global fluxes. The chemical cycle of
most elements begins In the crystalline rock that Is at the base of
the upper crust. Groundwater dissolution, erosion, uplift, and
volcanoes transfer elements from this zone to the surface
environment. At the surface, elements are distributed among
sediments, soils, flora, fauna, rivers, lakes, and oceans. These
cycles provide chemical stock for the biosphere Including humans. The
ancient Greeks first noted that overall health Is Influenr.ed by the
chemistry of the environment. In Air, Water, and Places Hippocrates
demonstrates that the well-being of Individuals Is Influenced by
quality of air, water, and food; the topography of the land; and
general living habits. For thl5 paper the methods of "environmental
geochemistry" provide the tool for mapping element cycles In landscape.
The calculation of element distributions within environmental
compartments U composed of five steps. First, one constructs the
landscape prism. The landscape prism Is a visual tool used In
environmental geochemistry to Illustrate the flow of elements In the
earth's near-surface environment. Second, the landscape prism Is
divided Into a set of compartments consistent with patterns of element
circulation observed In the global environment. Third, for each
element, trarsfer coefficients between each set of compartments are
determined. General geochemlcal data are used to calculate transfer
coefficients for the landscape systems model. Fourth, these transfer
coefficients are used to set-up a system of first-order, ordinary
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170
differential equations that define the time-dependent distribution of
chemical elements In the landscape. This set of equations is solved
numerically.
Studies on coal fly ash Indicate that It Is enriched relative to
the crust In several elements Including the toxic species arsenic,
lead, mercury, and radium. This paper examines some potential health
and environmental effects of changing the surface abundance of these
species at regional and global scales. Such geochenlcal wobl 11 rations
must be analyzed In a way that Integrates knowledge from several
d1sc1pl1r«s. Using the models described above, average environmental
concentrations In air, water, and food are derived and translated Into
a collective population exposure expressed as dally Intake. The
collective population dose Is converted to population risk, which Is
expressed as lifetime cancer risk per Individual for carcinogens and
as a range of blood levels for other toxins..
The overall analysis Is used to Investigate &nd rank the Impact of
additions of arsenic, lead, uranium ore, uranlum-238, and radlum-226
to the groundwater and soil of generic landscape. The toxic rank Is
obtained by determining the steady-state flux of a given species
required to equal the population risk of 1 g/km^ per year of
radlum-226 similarly Introduced. The results provide a rough awasure
of the quantity of a toxin such as arsenic that provides the
equivalent detriment of a unit quantity of radium. The basis of
comparison Is the steady-sta«-e change population health risk within
a physical region, such as a river ba: n, as a result of a continuous
source. It Is found that, when one considers environmental chemical
cycles, the hazard ranking of those species falls to correlate with
tradlcnal measures of toxic hazard that are derived using drinking
water standards.
This process of assessing chemical cycles and the Impact on human
health has been Incorporated Into a computer program called "GEOlOX",
which Is being modified for use on personal compucers (PCs). The PC
version of this program Is Intended for use as a screening tool for
regulatory agencies. Nonetheless, It also offers the potential for
use as a tool In classroom demonstrations or for Individual research
at the college level ,
VI. F. McNeil, Richard J. International Environmental Issues:
Teaching at the Unlve'-slty Level. Assoc. Prof, of Natural
Resources, Dept. of Natural Resources, Fernow Hall, Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York 1^853, USA.
A very large proportion of critical environmental issues are
International In their causes, efrects and solutions, especially if we
Include secondary effects. A course on International environmental
Issues, using foreign and International case studies, provides good
Illustrations of concepts, problems, and solutions applicable to
domestic sUuatlons. The background provided Is useful for many kinds
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of International and foreign careers and for domestic activities which
have foreign aspects. Finally, to be a good citizen today, a deeper
understanding of the complexities and Interrelatedness of these Issues
Is essential.
ESSENTIALS OF A COURSE
- *>
Concepts
I make concepts central and facts secondary to my teaching
methodology Novak and 6ow1n (1984) present an excellent argument for
stressing concepts (which, of course, are abstractions and must be
Illustrated with facts and case studies)*
It Is Important to minimize the number of concepts dealt with by
Including only those which are fundamental, or critical to
understanding behaviors related to the course, of grea^, exolanatory
pow^ , misunderstood or neglected.
Issues, policy and managemen t
A normal sequence of events occurs In resource management. A
phenomenon appears and Is perceived; a problem Is defined; If the
problem Is not solved and becomes Interesting puL 1cly, an Issue
arises; a policy decision Is made; management occurs (modified from
Caldwell 1984).
An understanding vf this sequence Is fundamental to teaching a
course on International environmental Issues. It becomes easy to see
that perceiving phenomena Is difficult, that public Interest about a
problem grows slowly and unevenly and therefore that Issues arise
slowly. Discussions of policy-making In an International arena then
flow easily from case studies of problems and Issues.
Policy decisions are, of course, almost always difficult. Besides
the questions surrounding such decisions themselves, an International
course must examine the extra problems related to the process of
declslon-maklng. Yhe Law of the Sea Treaty and the developing debate
over Antarctica provide outsta iing demonstrations of both the vexing
policy questions and the difficulties of finding Siiltable processes
for reaching decisions.
Which Issues are signific a nt? Which are critical?
Caldw 11 (1984) defines Intrinsic significance as "the ultimate
Importai ,e of an Issue for the welfare or survival of human society."
He says that political significance Is reldom determined by Intrinsic
significance. Too many other political considerations (Caldwell
Includes "perceived public preferences, the state of the economy,
military security ... and Implication: for the personal fortunes of
the policymakers") enter Into setting priorities. And so, snail
darters and furbish louseworts get a large measure of attention while
hundreds of tropical spec^'ies dwindle to extinction. We work out
methods of artificial resuscitation for sea turt ^s while erosion
carries away millions of tons of topsoll.
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Some Issues are crltlc^/5. Inmedlate action Is necessary If a
problem Is to b. averted or alleviated* It oiay be a useful exercise
to ask students to create (spontaneously, without reference to outside
sources) a ranked list of Intrinsically significant and critical
International envlrcnmental Issues* A short discussion will reveal
their interrelatedness and will raise students' consciousness
regarding significance and critlcallty.
Which significant or critical problems are not usually perceived as
Issues?
It Is li^portant for students to understand that sook fundamental
problems, mostly not 'envlronmentaT In a narrow sense, are not
generally seen as Issues and yet are basic causative or confounding
agents In other problems and Issues* These tend to be deeper, less
susceptible to management, perhaps representing *the human condition/
and Include, for exan9>lep human greed » misuse and uneven distribution
of power and wealth, political Instability* lack of political will,
Inability of Insufficient capacity of socio-political systems to
respond, and rapid rate of change.
What mechanisms are available for the creation and execution of policy?
Students must understand the kinds of Institutions commissions,
governments. International quas1*governmental organizations, private
groups (Including lobbies and transnational corporations) —that
create and execute International environmental policy. Learning about
sn-»c1f1c Institutions Is only of secondary value; only the few most
prominent examples of various types should be examined. Also, the
tremendous power of multinational corporations can be Illustrated by
various cases end readings.
Similarly, the major types of Instruments — laws, treaties,
agreements, conventions should be examined but with only a few
examples receiving any prominent attention. Many pivotal conferences,
statements, and programs could also be examined.
A discussion of enforcement of agreements Is usually Instructive.
The power, or lack of power, of the International ':ourt of Justice
(World Court) often leaves students feeling helpless until a deeper
discussion reveals that power available In public opinion, economic
uoycotts. International prestige and similar social tools and
mechanisms.
Va lues, attitudes ant! world views
In the cla'^sroom i try to make a few of my attitudes and values
explicit because a) I think they can set a good example, students
can better understand my rationale, objectives, choice of case studies
and other wa^'s I Influence the course content, and c) dlscucr^on of
attitudes and values helps to explain differences between cultures and
to point out some sources of conflicts In policy dec1s1on--mak1ng.
Among the values I bring to the discussion are: a sense of
obligation, especially but not only to human beings and other living
things, present and future; a belief In the need for movement toward
sustalnabillty, toward sufficiency, toward equltablllty; an assumption
that progrtfss Is possible.
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Attitudes I find especially useful Include optimism, hope,
concern, a sense of urgency, acceptance of uncertainty and change,
ability to cope with the realliat^on that some problems have so
(short-term) solut1o,:S.
I begin and end my course with an extended discussion of the
meaning of the word 'development.' I find that values and attitudes
come forth easily; at the end of the semester students have become
much more sophisticated In their understanding.
Different world views can atfect behavior markedly; resource
management decisions are quite different for example 1n fatalistic
cultures, those which believe In reincarnation, those which believe In
progress, those which believe In the concept of limited good. Slight
differences can usually be accommodated; radical ones may or may not
be compatible. Even distinctly different views can be accommodated
If, for example, laws are accepted as valid arbltors of behavior,
METHODS
Concept mapping and use of case studies are central to ray teaching
methods- Concept mapping organizes my thinking and teaching, assists
student learning, and ensures that student and teacher have reached
•shared rr*?an1ng" (Novak & Sowin 1984). Case stiidles provide concrete
Illustrations of abstract concepts.
With complex subject matter a discussion format is essential. I
also require a lengthy (20-30 page) term paper which is analytical.
Issue-centered, and offers proposals to resolve problems. I use essay
examinations and find that most students prefer those which tney can
take home or. If done In class, which have pre-ainounced subjects or
questions.
I have used ext^^nslve readings fror a variety of sources, an<f a
required text, by Caldwell (1384). I believe that en understanding f
the recent historical setting of current environmental Issues Is
valuable. Caldwell does that very well, and Includes appendices
listing International organization, programs and events of
significance for protection of the b^osph ^.
THE CONTEXT SUnROUNDlNi^ ' COURSE
Courses do not exist In isolation. They are parts of curricula.
More than that, they are Immersed In an environment (which they help
to create and modify). A small collection of relevant books and a
steady flow of journals and daily newspapers Is essential. I have
found the following journals to be especially valuable: Amblo .
Biological Conservation , Ceres , Developmr i nt Forum , Envlronw^ental
Conservation , lUCN Bulletin , Hazlngira , UNESCO Courier . Films,
videotapes and similar aids are useful, especially for setting a scene
or mood, for cheap surrogate visits to foreign regions, and for
certain examples and case studies. Access to such materials Is easy;
also visiting scholars from other regions are available in any large
community or school. Other faculty members, other students, other
courses, and related programs such as semester- or year-^abroad courses
can greatly strengthen International curriculum efforts.
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A curriculum can be part of a prog/am, which may Involve research,
faculty colleagues, and Interaction with related departments. Such a
program, in my opinion, needs several elements. These Include
self-improvement (Including travel, extensive reading^ contacts with
collegues elsewhere with rlmllar Interests), networking (i.e. building
up a set of relationships with Interested scholars, government
officials, members of organizations, foreign students), and
administrative support (both financial and emotional) at all levels.
A final requirement Is to assist colleagues to grow, through
discussions, literature, seminars, and other means*
Courses, curricula, and programs are always Imperfect but those
targeted toward International perspectives have a :*pec1al probability
of becoming fuiictloral, valuable, and pleasurable teaching-learning
experle'^ces.
REFERENCES
Caldwell, L.K. International Environmental Policy; Emergence and
Dimensions . Duke Univ. Press, Durham, North Carolina. 1984.
Novak. J.D. & Gowin, D.B. learning How to Learn . Cambridge Univ.
Press, NY. 1984.
VI. G. Ottum, Margaret 6. " Education's Role 1n Toxic Waste Control
Associate Professor, Department of Environmental and Health
Sciences, Johnson State College, Johnson, Vermont 05555, USA.
Toxic wastes are a byproduct of the modern Industrial society and
how a nation handles them Is a measure of its commitment not only to
current population, hut also to all future generations and the
world at large. The U.S. Envlronniental Protection Agency (EPA) In
1980 estimated the U.S. generated over 58 million metric tons of
hazardous wastes a year and that the quantity was 1ncrear;1ng by 3 to 5
percent per year (EPA, 1980). Unfortunately many of these dangerous
wastes that have been produced and sub<:equcntly "thrown away* have
surfaced again at places like Love Cai.^i, Valley of the Drums, Times
Beach, Chemical Contrcl and many many mere.
EPA (1980) lias on file Jdov hundreds of docuiRerced cases of damage
to llf » and the environment '^i^sultln^ from the Imnproper management of
hazardous wastes and the list Is growing - and the list will continue
te, giow as i; Is estimated that 90 percent of all hazardous wastes
:ave been disposed of In unsafe ways.
Hizardcus wastes are produced by many Industries Including paper,
met.^V., machinery, stone, glass, and so forth, but the largest single
cont v/tor 1> the chemical and allied products Industry. This Is a
broad Industrial category, that Includes fhe producers of such thinas
as detergents, cosmetics, paints, plai cs, synthetics, fertilizers,'
^rj pesticides. Collectively they gen rate about 50 percent of the
hazardous wastes produced and some of the most difficult to deal with.
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Hazardous substances have been with us since historic time but the
nature of the substances and the magnitude of the problems they
present has changed m£:rked1y In the last 40 years. VIorld War II might
be vIew.J as the birth of the 'Chemical Age", for It Is largely since
then that America has been transformed from a nation of natural
substances to one of synthetics. By the 1970s, there were an
estimated 70,000 chemical substances In the marketplace and about a
thousand new ones were being Introduced each year* At the birth of
the chemical age many big questions were overlooked as attention was
focused on the role of these new chemicals In protecting, prolonging,
and enhancing life. The enjoymnent of new synthetics, plastics, and
pesticides was not marred by fear, because few realized that risks
might also be associated with them. Even the scientific comminlty's
Interest and concern over these new chemicals was limited and sporadic
until the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962).
By then thousands of chemicals had already been produced and very
few had been adequately tested. Even when testing had been done*,
little was known about long-term effects or how substances responded
when combined. Unwittingly America was becoming a laboratory for
chemical testing but few Americans recognized the dangers.
Also few recognized that the wastes produced by this growing
Industry needed special care and handling. Most of the wastes
produced were In the form of liquids and sludges and most of those
were going Into unllned waste ponds and lagoons or being dumped Into
landfills. In most caser attention was paid to site locations,
safety measures, or the maintenance of records.
This has led to a hazardous waste leo^cy that is national In scope
and almost beyon'i comprehension In slie.
It ha<^ been estimated that there are between 32,000 and 30,000
landfill .>ites that contain hazardous wastes and that probably
2,000 of these pose imminent danger to public health and the
environment (U.S. EPA, 1979).
A surface Impoundment assessment funded by EPA and conducted by
the state In 1980 Identified 176,647 Industrial lagoons and other
waste Impoundments. A preliminary Investigation of 8,163 of them
found that 70 percent had no lining and 95 percent had no
monitoring system ^li.S. EPA, 1980).
EP'% estimated In 1980 that there were more than ^00,000 weils Into
which liquid wastes were Injected and that each year about 5,000
more were dug (EPA, 1980).
In 1976 Congress confronted with overwhelming eviderice that the
Improper disposal of huge quantUles of hazardous waste was
endangering millions of Americans, passed the Resc^rce Conservation
and Recovery Act (1976). This art was designed to Impose "cradle to
grave" control over the treatment, storage, transportation and
disposal of hazardous wastes which have adverse effects on health
(RCRA, 1976). The goal was to assure safe and tightly controlled
handling and disposal of aP newly created hazardous wastes.
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Congress, four years later (1980), enacted legislation creating a
"Superfund" designed to provide money for the cleanup of abandoned
dump sites i'Tid toxic sp11l> (Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, 1980).
The law Imposed a tax on chemical producers, with th* inoney placed
In a fund to be used If and when the parties responsible for the toxic
dump or spill could not be located or could not be compelled to
rectify the problem (CERCLA, 1980).
So far the Implementation action regarding either of these pieces
of legislation has not been good (National Ul'idllfe federation, 1980).
There were delays by EPA In promulgating regulations, suspension of
Implementation, rule changes, charges of fraud and nlsmanag^ient, and
a»»ove all- ,«ck of enforcement. The results have not only been an
Vftcreases risk to public health, but also an Increased lack of
c edibility on the part of EPA. This quickly translated In the
!>ub11c's perception to a distrust of the government's Interest and
sincerity In protectin'- '^helr health and safety.
Currently, one of t <t major problem'^ facing the Industries that
produce hazardous waste, the state governments, and the public at
large Is the lack of good disposal facilities. A considerable number
of ; iatment ind disposal options are available but In each case they
require the siting of a facility and this has become extremely
difficult anr In some cases Impossible due to public opposition.
When legitimate waste disposal at a reasonable cost Is
unavailable, the Illegal hauler or "mldiight dumper" often becomes a
major element 1n the hazardous wiste picture. These "d. ^i^ers" dispose
of waster at night wherever It Is most convenient and often at a
fraction of the cost required for legitimate disposal.
As a result, such hazardous wastes have gone Into streams, ponds,
lakes, down storm drains and mine shafts, been spreao cn farms and
roadways, left In vacant lots, and even in city ftrwets. It has also
been rnlxtd with heating oil and scld In cities, mixed with oil and
spread on gravel roads, or even mixed with asphalt and used to surface
roads .
These piactlces have resulted in environmental damage, adver:.e
health effects, and enormous cleanup costs. The huge profits involved
with thl*; type of disposal and the low penalties when apprehended have
encouraged such practices and aTso made thU a lucrative "business"
for organized ^rlme (New York State Senate Select Committee on Crime.,
1980).
Breaking the past cycle of Irresponsible disposal pn^ctlces will
be a ra ^'nental task. It must Involve strong control and clean p
legislation but also must Involve education. For only t.rcjgh an
Informed and educated public Is It possible to stop the current
practices - let alone rectify the past mistakes.
Education must:
Promote the 1<fea of limiting the amount of hazardous wastes
produced, and substituting less dangerous subs be It on the
small icale of the home or the large scale of try.
177
Promote recycling and re-use not only of bottles, cans, and oil,
but also a myriad of other substances.
Promote the utmost care and the safest possible disposal methods
for z toxics that must be produced.
Provlue us with the tools to -^xert pressure on elected officials
and government agencies to develop Incentives for Industry to
procf >ce le^s and for government to Impose strict and stringent
penalties for those that do not.
Instill a (.omnltment to responsible action.
It may cost us all a little more for the products bought, but that
1s a small price to pay compared to the long-term riski associated
with any other action.
The cost of c ean up Is far more expensive than proper disposal In
the first place. Typically, costs Just for determining groundwater
quality ai an Industrial waste disposal site have been estimated to
range from $50,000 to $250,000 and the total cost of clean up at such
a site to be In the millions. EPA Itself estimated that the cost of
remedying the most severe toxic waste problems In the U.S. may he $50
billion and that does not Include the social costs.
Hopefully we can and will break with the past practices of dumping
wastes wherever It Is cheapest and easiest.
Hopefully we will make a genuine effort to rectify past mistakes.
Hopefully we will use our technology to provide a better life and
w^ll not aTlow Its byproducts to threaten our very existence.
Hopefully toxic wa.tes will not be cne of the ma.^.or legacies that
we leave for future generations.
Useful References Cited and Nonclted
Brown, Nicfiael. Laving Waste: The Poi s oning of America by Toxic
Chemicals . New York, N.Y., Washington Square Press, 1979.
Carson, Rachel. S11e»>t Soring . Boston, Ha., Houghton HlffUn, 1962.
Center for Science In the Public Interest. The Household Pollutant
Gu*de. Garden City, N.Y., Anchor Books, 1978.
Central States Education Center. Hazardous Waste: An Iritrcductlon.
Champlain, 111, 1984.
Citizens for a Better Environment, Natural Resourc<*s Oefens*^ Council,
and Sacramento Toxics Alliance. Hazardous Waste Surfa ce
Impoundments: The Nation's Host Serious and Neglected ihreat to
Groundwater . 1983
Comprehe * * ve Environmental Response, Compensation, a ' 'lia bility Act
(CEJ ^ , 1980, 42 use 9601. et seq.
Counr', of Environmental Quality. Contamination of Ground Water by
3x1c Organic Chemicals . Washington, D.C., Government Printing
ufflce, 1931.
Epstein, Samuel S., Brown, Lester 0., Pope, Carl. Haza rdous Waste I n
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America . San Francisco, CA.. Sierra Club Books, 1982.
National Wildlife Federation. The Toxic Substances Dllenma: A Plan
for Citizen Action . Washington, O.C., U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1980.
N.Y. State Senat'- Select Cowmlttee on Crime. Organized Crlnte and
Toxic Wastes . July 8, 1980.
R esource Conservation and ..ecoverv Act (RCRA), 1976, 42 USC 6901 et
seq.
U.S. Congressional Office of Technology Assessment. Technologies and
Management Strategies for Hazardous Waste Control . Washington.
D.C., Qovernment Printing Office, 1983.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Preliminary Assessment of
Clean up Costs for National Hazardous Waste Problems . Prepared
by Fred C. Hart Associates, 1979.
U.S. Envlrnnmental Protection Agency. The National Assessment of ::he
Ground Water Contamination Potential of Waste Iiooundments .
Washington, D.C. ,(iovern;ient Printing Office. 1980a.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water and ^:aste
Management. Everybody's Problem: Hazardou Waste . Washington.
O.C.. 1980b.
VI. H. P?ge, Garnet T. "Industry's Task - To keep Nature In
Business". Chairman. Canadian Committee, UNESCC Man and the
biosphere Programme. 4-834 Second Ave. N.W., Calga'-y, Alberta
T2N OES. Canada.
MY VIEWS ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT
It is appropriate to state some of my personal be/tefs, based on a
long experience with Industry. I think that they are shared by many
in the private sector.
1) The environment Is what Is all around us and where everything
happens. Where M all happens Is not Just air, land and water,
but all of nature. The entire globe Is Involved In environmental
considerations that transcend all boundaries and Jurisdictions.
2) The environment Is defined more formally as the surrounding
conditions, and the Influences or forces which Influence or modify
them. Within this context therp Is a host of physical,
biological, physio-social, blo-soclal and psycho-social factors.
Therefore, the term environment encompasses every aspect of We
and living, every aspect of nature.
3) The environment undergoes and adjusts to constant change
because of natural phenomena. Man has added to these changes
because of his own actlvUlec. He has overgrazed pastures,
cleared steep slopes, blocked rivers, over-farmed land,
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over-killed wildlife, felled too '^any trees, built roads and
communities, drained swamps, and has surf-?* e and underground mined
to recover many comnx)d1t1es of great value to our way of life.
4) In the past relatively little concern was given to the Impact
of man's actions upon the environment. Nan probably had the
erroneous dea that he was put on earth to donlnate nature, and to
do whatever he chose with It- But, In recent years, many people
have Insisted that we become aware of air and water pollution,
soil erosion, stream slltatlon and mutilated landscapes as major
obstacles to both the quality of the environment and man's future
condition on earth. Perhaps man has been greedy, thoightless,
careless or Just plain Ignorant, ar-d he Is Just now learning that
he must keep nature In business because It Is essential for his
own continued happy existence. He Is learning, and learning fast,
that to stay In business, he mast help to keep nature In business.
5) Nan Is supposed to manage his activities In relation to ure
so that his needs may be met with least harm to nature. Because
there are meny people and they all want different things at
different times, but often In the same place. It Is Important to
have good criteria and guidelines. If we know what we want, we
should be able to know how we are to get it, making sure that we
don't upset nature v^r our communltle;";. How we do this should be
discussed with all concerned before starting a project and, after
agreement, should be written down. These are the 'rules of the
game,' as It should be played.
6) I believe that Industry has an Increasingly real concern with
discharging Us environmental responsibilities. It should be
prepared to do the things that It can believe In as fair, clear,
practical, reasonable and necessary. It should be prepared to
work with governments In deciding what these things should be.
Agreeing on some rules, recommending what should be done by whOiH,
how, when, and where, and seeing that It gets done fairly and
properly; this Is what we must do both to meet our needs and to
keep nature In business.
7) W kmw that we do not have all the answers. We know that In
mining for example, there Is no one standard recipe to resolve all
problems because of greatly differing soils, topographies,
climates, desired uses, etc. We know the serious dangers of
making superficial comparisons between problems In one area or
country and another. And we kno^ that a sufficient range of
technology exists to carr*/ out successful resolution of almost any
specific environmental problem. That technology Is continually
being Improved In everv annual cycle.
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8) Finally. It Is my environment too, I am personally as
dedicated to Its conservation as any of those In the audience,
perhaps mere so. I cannot tolerate casual, careless or airogant
behaviour towards the environment.
THE GOVERNMENT - INDUSTRY PARTNERSHIP
Government:; and Industry are both concerned with economU growth,
often Involving large quantities of material resources and energy.
Such activities carry with them the necessity of dealing with an
enlarging potential environmental disruption accompanying such
growth. The Increasing complexity and manipulation of global
resources requires sophisticated management to ensure that the
natural reslllerice of global systems Is not exceeded, and that
potentially Irreversible disruptions and unexpected 'surprises' are
avoided. It Is Impossible to say that this cannot be done and equally
Impossible to say that It will be.
une of the major problems facing governments and Industry Is th^t
uncertainties about the future Impacts of their current choices
suggest that what are believed to be acceptable or even good choices
for the near future may prove less satisfactory for the more distant
future. This Is particularly important because the scale of efforts
Is often large, and the degree of reversibility and time required to
reverse some environmental impacts n»ay be quite long.
Uncertainties often make It difficult for governments and Industry
to make universally accepted statements or choices on environmental
Issues. National and regional perceptions of value differ on many
matters. Moreover, envlror^nental Impacts differ because of regional
characteristics such as meteorology, topography, population density,
and resource distribution. For such rea*^:ns, those concerned r^y take
differing positions on the nature and extent of the environmental
control measures required.
ENVIRONMENTALLY ACCEPTABLE
Governments and Industry together lean Increasingly on the two
words, 'environmentally acceptable' as their joint objective In
designing and qualifying Industrial projects for Implementation. For
example, energy related projects require that economic, energy and
environments objectlv&s must be balanced, and the costs of protecting
the environment weighed against vhe benefits to be gained. Assessing
where this baiance lies Is far from simple, but at some stage a
judgement ha: to be made as to the deg,ee of environmental p otectlon
for which the costs can be accepted by society, 30 that regulations
and standards may M formulated.
The words 'environmentally acceptable' contain a strong element of
judgement and are Impossible to define 1r absolute terms. They may be
understood to mear 'with effects on the environment which are
acceptable to governments and to the publV. But what Is
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•envlrr^nnantally acceptable' In terms of effects will change jver
time, end 1n particular with advances In pollution control technology
and In knowledge of the nature and extent of environmental effects.
This means that, for the best judgements to be made about
environmental acceptability, continuing attention msut be paid to
environmental education, environmental awareness and perception, and
to the many relevant areas of research and development. Governments,
the private sector and the public are all concerned end each has heavy
responsibilities. They should also develop awareness th.it neW
technologies arising from research and development In many countries
now enable Industry to resolve many of the environmental 'i>robiems that
It creates. This vital work imist continue, supoorted by gov^^rmnents
on behalf of the public, and by the Industry, so that somt^ damages we
may now consider *ney1table may be minimized or eliminated.
ENVIRONHENTAL EDUCATION AND INDUSTRY
The U.N. Belgrade Charter of 1975 defines environmental edi'catlon
as that branch of educatlcn wh'ich seeks to develop a population that
Is aware of, and concerned about, the environment end Its associated
problems, and which has knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivation
arid commitment to work Individually and collectively toward solutions
of current problenis and the prevention of new ones.
The responsibility for providing environmental education lies
largely at the door of those agencies entrusted by the publH with the
ccwnon good; schools, universities and government departments. It is
a large public responsibility, and can only be managed this way.
Others with considerable responsibility are special Interest groups,
industry and the media.
As an example of Industry's growing sensitivity to the
environment, and of Its responsibilities for public environmental
education, the private sector In Western Canada and Northwestern
U.S.A. Initiated and continue to support a program of assistance to
the formal education systems called SEEDS {Society, Environment and
Energy Development Studies). This highly successful programme
develops energy and environment related materials for grades 1 to 12,
assists teachers In their effective use, and conduct*: field trips with
qualified guides, .md Is spreading widely In our two countries.
A special neea that has been identified by both UNEiCO and UNEP Is
that of Improving l^e training of engineers In both the private sector
and In government 1n conservation of the env1ron.iient and the promotion
of their awareness of envlronii^ental Issues. A positive program to
help fill this need Is being developed, recognizing that environmental
education has an Important psrt to play both In general university
education arid In the training of specialists whose later professional
activities, often as dedslon^makers In Industry, are likely to have
an Impact or th« environment ar^d Us associated problems, theU
oreventlon ana ^.lutlon.
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CONCLUSION
Not too many years ago there was some fear and speculation that
environmental concerns would fall by the wayside as Canada developed
Its economy to meet increasing demands for material things and
energy. But this did not happen. In recent years the nation's
awareness of its many-sided dep&nderice on material goods and energy
has sharpened. Over the same period, Canadians, including leaders of
industry, have grown increasingly aware of their unparalleled
environment and of those things that threaten it In the course of
producing goods and energy.
I am prepared to continue to work with industry to encourage it to
do those things that it sees as fair, clear, practical, reasonable and
necessary: and to work with governments and the concerned public in
deciding what these things should be. Much progress has been irade,
based on environmental education to a large extent. We are going to
have to work harder, and work together to keep natcre in business.
But the results are worthy of nothing less that our Dest efforts.
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VI. I. SchuUz, Judith M. "World Population Imperatives Precipitate
New Trends 1n Population Policy*. Professor of Biology and
Environmental Science* University of Cincinnati » Raymond
Walters Colleg:'. 9555 Plalnfleld Road, Cincinnati, Ohio 45236,
USA.
The current world population size of 4,700 million Is projected to
rise to 6,100 million by the year 2000 and 8,200 million by the year
2025. Of particular Interest are the demographic futures and
population policies emerging from the world's most populous
nations—the one-child family policy of China and the compulsory
sterilization proposal of India In response to population growth the
past decade. In addition, there have been Intriguing demographic
phenomena emerging within the Caribbean nation of Cuba;
India, maintaining the world's second largest population of 746
million persons as of 1984, is projected to grow faster between 1980
^nd 2000 than had been formerly Indicated* The largest country In
south Asia, IndUt maintains 15X of the world's population with only
2.4X of total world land area. India's population doubled between
1947 at the time of Independence from British rule and again in 1981.
India's recent accelerated population growth Is due chiefly to a drop
In mortr^llty wh1':h has greatly outdistanced the decline In fertility.
Knowledge of this phenomenon has resulted In calls for revUallzatlcn
of the family planning program which Svffered backlash during the
1976-77 coercive sterilization drive, a major cause of Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi's political defeat In March, 1977. (In 1976-77,
sterilizations rose to over 8 million, dropping to one million the
following year Acceptance of other means of contraception also
dropped.)
following Mrs, Gandhi's defeat In 1977, due In part to coercelve
population policy, the new «jianota 6overnm*^iit avoided family planning
issues. The shocking results o; the 1981 census prompted Indira
Gandhi to call for a "relnvlqurated family planning program."
Howeve* . Implementation of such measures ^s extremely d1ff1c^*t, since
75% ot Indians live In rural areas dispersed In close to 600,000
V nages. Thirty-eight percent of urban Indians and fifty-one percent
of rural Indians live oelow tne poverty level. For the desperately
poor rural Indians, children are an economic asset. Tremendous effort
will also be needed to dispel the h'istorical cloud of suspicion
surrounding vasectomy.
Rapid pupilation growth has defeated India's original plan to
provide free education for all children up to age 14. Water supplies
are dwindling with only 33X having acc:jss to safe drinking water In
1973. Reliance by 75X of Indians upon wood for 70X of energy needs
has caused rapid depletion.
[A simulation exercise and fact sheet will be utilized at *h1s
point in the d'.scussion to assist secondary/college students and
teachers in dealing with population policy questions and compulsory
vs. voluntary methods of birth control. The exercise will examine the
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compulsory sterilization law of the Maharashtra Assembly, the first of
Its kind In the world, passed (but not Implemented) during the
Emergency' ]
The People's Republic of China, currently maintaining the world's
largest population of 1,023 million In 1983, has undergone a recent.
If not ten^orary, fertility decline In the past dec ie. The 1983
figure represents an Increase of 329 mllMon since 1964. This size
and growth are the basis for both Interest and concern. Of greatest
concern Is the scarcity of arable land. China possesses 7X of the
world's arable land while malntalninq 2Z% of the world s population.
Only one-tenth of the land Is arable. Population growth has caused a
drop In arable land per capita. Inportantly, expansion of cultivated
land has apparently reached a limit.
In three decades, the reduction In Chinese crude death rate
amounted to as much as the decline In U.S. death rate over a century.
However, birth rates did ntt drop as fast. This decline In death rate
was caused by winning major battles over disease, natural disaster and
wars. The early years of the People's Republic resulted In unbridled
optimism about population growth. By 1979, however. It was realized
even that with the current number of persons In reproductive years,
even a two-child family would Imply continued population growth for
another fifty years. As a result, the world's first "one-child
^^amlly" national population policy and campaign was established. By
1982, 15 million couples had pledged to have only one child.
Incentives for such families now Irrclude free health care for the
child, bonuses, larger pensions, priorities In housing, school and
employment. The 1982 census prompted even more Intensified effort to
limit the population size to 1.200 minion by the year 2000, when It
was realized that fifty percent of the population was under age 21,
and that 13 million couples would reach child-bearing age In ♦^^ next
18 years. This was In great contrast to the call for an 1ncr» , In
population to preserve the Chinese race by Sun Yat-sen. founder of the
Chinese Republic In 1911. Communist party Chairman Mao had suggested
that revolution plus production would solve the problem of food
production and employment for the Chinese population, believing that
an Iranense population size, vast ter.-itory, all abundant resources
were a distinct advantage. Population size, however, soon came to 1-*
viewed as a liability to socioeconomic development. Debate ensued a^
to whether people should be considered producers (supply-side
economies) or consumers (demand theory). In promotion of socialist
development, in 1971 a national population plan for family planning
was intentionally brought into the realm of state planning in contrast
to Individual choice in the capitalist nations. With the death of «ao
and demise of the "Gang of Four" in 1976, emerging leaders were
committed to birth control. Population regulation is now defined as a
major pclHicai thrust to modernize the n-ition. Emancipation of ^omcn
has made ^reat strides, but China along with India is still one of the
few countries of the world where males outnumber females. Hale
preference has resurfaced strongly with the one-thlld family
campaign. Female infanticide Is increasing, as \z maltreatment of
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women rearing firstborn girls; underreporting of female firstoorns 1r
order to have a chance at a second male child Is also common. The
government u atte^iptlng to counteract this problem by coercive
educd'don. China's attempt to deal with demographic trends from a
coe'^dve basis continues to generate mixed opinions of admiration and
aJmorJtlon within Its conflict of state authority vs. reproductive
right of the Individual*
Cuba» the largest and most populous of the Caribbean Island
nations » has ar estimated 1983 population of 9.8 million. Among
developing nations » Cuba has the highest life expectancy, lowest
1r/ ' ortallty, and lowest fertility rates. Historically,
Immigration caused a tripling of the population In the 19th century
when 1/2 million African %\^yes and 120,000 Chinese Indentured
servants were brought Into the country to support the booming sugar
Industry, and when hundreds of thousands of Span;a;d^ and Europeans
Immigrated to the Island. During the world economic depression, many
forhier nlgrants returned to their country of origin. Tn the early
19f0s mass Immigration commenced, with an excess of 80i/,000 persons
d'^ported to the U.S. between 1959 and 1980 from the beginning of the
revolution until the recent Harlel seallft of AprlUSeptember 1980.
However, also during the early 1960s, Cuba ext^erlenced Increc : In
fertility or a baby boom. The Cuban revolution hos brought about
dramatic changes In education and health, as well :s 1iiv>roved :>tatu:
for women and has eliminated class differentials. An attempt to
provide basic needs for all has resulted In a more austere society*
Thus, the Cuban housing situation Is currently reaching crisis
proportions and difficult economic times are forecast.
.Carriage rat3S rjse as urban poor viewed redistribution of wealth
of the socialist regime optimistically, ard the government legalized
conser^sual unions. When abortion was suddenly restricted and the
economic blockade by the U.S. also dramatically cut off contraceptive
supp'iles which had been mostly Imported, birth rates dramatically
Increased. Fertility subsequently declined due to ease on abortion
resti Ictlons, such that In 1978 Cuba had the world's highest rates of
legal abortion. Contraceptive practice Is now relatively high and
rising due to supplies made available by the government, the UN and
International Planned Parenthood. A reduction In marriage rate and
high divorce rate In the 1970s have also affected fertility decline.
Government sponsored family planning services have now been
Incorporated Into the health ministry. The government opposes the
argument that overpopulation Is one cause of poverty afflicting
developing nations. Post^revolutlona y modernization process^^s have
Involved compulsory education for children and adfilt education,
raising of the status of women, and urbanization of rural areas.
These attempts have decreased the value of children as contributors to
old age security which played scm part In reducing fertility. The
recent deterloratUig economy world certainly be expected to thwart
aspirations of the population as did the depression. By 1980, the
effects of the 1960*s baby boom became evident with a surge In 15-19
year olds working age Individuals. Coupling economic slowdown In a
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society which prefers early and universal marriage, it Is not
unexpected that Cuba's crime rate Is dramatically rising. The housing
shortage has become dramatically acute. The government, undoubtedly
acutely aware of this demographic phenomenon has sent large
tohtlngents of Cuban civilians and military personnel to Africa,
Central America, and Caribbean countries to relieve unemplcyment and
housing shortages. This newest plan of the Castro government would
Indicate that enormous growth has not kept pace with education. The
second phase of coping vlth this baby bom age cohort was the 1980
Harlel seal 1ft. It seems clear that the Castro government planned the
April 4, 1980 congregation of 11,000 potential emigrants Into the
Peruvian Embassy cofi4>ound with official permission for all who wanted
to leave. In the next five months, one half of the natural Increase
In population occurring during the peak baby boom year of 1963 left
the nation of Cuba. The Immediate results were the opening of
thousands of housing units, reduction of crime rates, and reduction of
unemployment pressures. The «ar1el seallft added 122,061 Cuban
Immigrants over the U.S. legal total Inmlgratlon quota of 400,000 In
1980, impacting population growth In that nation* Immigrants to the
U.S. at the beginning of the Cuban revolution in 1959 had Included
wealthy, powerful, business persons, professionals, and many
coUege-iegreed, while the Marlel exodus included lower socioeconomic,
primarily urban bluecollar proletariat, which required greater efforts
at ass1m11<it1on by the Carter administration of the U.S. Government.
As more cohorts mature, a future exodus Is undoubtedly within the
planning of Fidel Castro. An echo boom can also be expected from
those who remain behind to establish their t vn families. When this
echo baby boom reaches retirement age, medical and pension benefits
can be expected to consume an Inordinate amount of Cuba's resources as
a socialist state.
^ Schultz, 3.n. and Coon, H.L. Population Education Activitie s
for the Classroom .. 1977 ERIC/SMEAC. The OHIO State University.
Contact author for revised version.
VI. J. Swibold, Susanne N. "Environmental Censorship and the Media -
A Test Case: The Fur Seal Harvest of the Pr ilof Islands".
Flying Tomato Productions, Box 910, Canmore, nlberta TOL OMO,
Canada.
Over th^ last four yeirs I have been producing and directing films
on the Prlbllof Islands, Alaska. The four films In the series will
comprise the most comprehensive blcck of work ever done on these
Island habltates and their Inhabitants, the Aleut people. The first
film of the series, ^Peter Picked 3 Seal Stick", Is completed and will
be featured In this session. The film Is a stralght^forward
documentary of the fur seal havest of the Prlbllof Islands, ir^^ the
killing field to final boxing of blubbered pelts. We provide the
edited film and the Aleut people scrloted and narrated to the
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picture. Aleut history Is highlighted by a series of archival
photographs and a song written and sung by an Aleut couple* The film
Is not an Issue film; nor was It created to encourage or discourage
the event. It was produceci as a falthfuH record of sealing In
collaboration with the Aleut peop"^e. It Is the first film of Its kind
to adopt a native point of view In relation to the harvest of a wild
animal .
The growing awareness of environmental and animal protection
groups about Canada's harp seal harvest and now the Pribllof fur seal
harvest have made sealing very controversial* However « both the r^^ila
and animal rights groups have failed to present a comprehensive visual
portrait of the harvest, Including the human element Involved, their
point of view and their history. Without this basic understanding of
the entire process. Involving the Aleuts ^or over 200 years, the
Pribllof seal harvest becomes a propaganda vehicle obscuring the w« < le
truth of a very complex Issue.
In showing our film to television networks, producers have been
reluctant to broadcast the film, preferring Instead to show short
clips of clubbing on the harvest field coupled with "talking heads"
offering opinions on the Issue. We have further discovered the
television networks want artistic control to edit the film to their
format, destroying the Integrity of the content. There Is an apparent
reluctance In the media - newspapers, magazines and television - to
address the complexity of seal harvesting. The treaty nations
Involved In the Pribllof harvest are very aware of the seals' health,
population and welfare as well as the Aleuts' livelihood and culture.
Television has not addressed this environmental Issue In Its
complexity and promotes hate and violence towards the Aleut people by
portraying ' iii as "senseless killers of an Innocent wild animal"
through clU > of the clubbing scenes on the harvest field.
How do we bec^ia to face the complexity of man and the environment
1n e responsible way? Kow can we begin to understand that whole
habitats are destroyed by agriculture and Dff shore oil drilling? How
can we begin to understand that man will always have an Interaction
with wild animals, plants, trees, as well as domestic animals and
agrlrvlture, but In a balanced equilibrium, not an either/or
situation. If we forc^- an al l-aqrlculture (Including aquaculture)
food environment and an oil-based clothing economy, we will destroy
the balance of the pla^rt In the food chain atd In global weather. We
are not teaching our children or ourselves about •.he reality of
killing wild animals for subsistence and for some necessary clothing.
The people of the clrcumpola*^ regions have different needs and ways of
life than those of us In warmer climates. The people of the equator
and :outh sea communities have different needs In food and clothing
than those of temperate zones. How can we realize that the survival
of the wisest will mean a sharing and conserving of aJM the natural
resources?
How can we realize we are an Integral part of living systems and
recognize tht necessity of balancing our values to fit nature's laws
and economy? Self-awareness and self--d1sc1pl1ne In choices of our
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ends as well as our means will become paramount to our survival as
iiumao beings. He i^iust want to know the complexity and full picture of
our environmental problems so we may wisely perceive what can be given
and received In balancing the situation* Self-restraint and
self-discipline have been lacking In our society as we have removed
more and more external restraints. This has created an Imbalance
psychologically ancf sociologically In Internal and external conflicts
and aggressive-defensive responses requiring prevention or cure. We
must Join feeling and reason, non-verbal and verbal as well as our
subjective and objective sources of Information for problem-solving.
The scientist and the artist will be required of all of us If we are
to act with wisdom In our environment.
VI. K. von Hofsten, Anne. "Acid Rain In 3 World Conservation Strategy
Perspective". The National Swedish Environment Protect'ion
Board, Information Section, Box 1302, S-171 25 Solna, Sweden.
The aim of the World Conservation Strategy Is to achieve the three
main objectives of living resource conservation:
a. to maintain essential ecological processes and life-support
systems on which human survival and development depend.
to preserve genetic diversity on which depend the functioning
of many of the above processes and life-support systems.
c. to ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems
(notably fish and other wildlife, forests and grazing lands), which
support millions of rural communities as well as major Industries.
The objectives thus formulated are Important, but must be
explained to the public and school children In a concrete way. This
can of course be done In many ways, but I would like to do this with
acidification as an example. The UCS draws the world's attention to
the increasingly dangerous stresses being put on earth's biological
systems and recommends measures for relieving them. The Strategy
calls on all nations to adopt conservation policies and practices at
home, to join International efforts, to Improve the human environment
worldwide and to prote the biosphere that sustains all life on
earth. Acidification 1s a problem that occurs almost all over the
world and whole ecosystems will be extermlnatec If nothing ^s done to
stop It. It Is an International problem that Is f.ot recognzlng any
borders. It 1s also a problem that goes deep Into many fco'loglcal
systems with an Influence both on higher and more primitive organisms
and with both primary and secondary effects. All this means also,
that It Is a good example of how ecological systems function and how
man's actlvitlt afluence those systems.
One main purpose of the Strategy Is to persuade the nations of the
world to adopt ecologically sound development practices. The air
pollution of today In western countries Is not a sound development.
Nature (lakes, forests, the soil) has reacted strongly. It Is time
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not only to explain to decision-makers, but also to our children and
youth^-the decision-makers of tomorrow. Acidification Is a dramatic
and serious problem that concerns all of us.
"Perhaps the worst environmental threat ever to hit us, an ongoing
environmental catastrophe" are drastic terms In which acidification of
land and water In Scandinavia and North America have been described.
The effect of acidification depends on the scale of the total
deposit and the Inherent resistive power of land and water. Hinds and
alrmasses around us transport the emissions from one place to another
regardless of frontiers. This Is why It Is an International problem.
It Is why we In Sweden and Norway talk about It as one of our biggest
environmental problems In the 1980* s.
The history of acidification goes back several hundred years when
the fossil fuels, mainly oil and coal, were formed. Over the Ust 200
years we have released that long confined sulphur and let It go out In
the atmosphere. Another serious emission Is from the car exhausts,
the nitrogens.
The SO2 from the chimneys occurs either on small particles or In
cloud and raindrops. This Is how It literally rains acid.
WATtR
The primary effect of acid rain was first recorded In the 1960s In
Sweden when more than 18,000 lakes of Swedens' 98,000 lakes were
acidified and 4,000 of them were seriously acidified with severely
damaged animal and plant life. The number of species decline with low
pH. All ""normal" life Is gone at pH less than 5. The white mosses
(Sphagnum sp.) are left to cover the bottom and water Is very clear
due to a declined decomposition of nutrients.
Besides these effects of low pH, It also means an Increasing
content of aluminum and other metals, like cadmium, zinc and lead
becoming more soluble and thU5; more easily accessible to animals and
plants. The gills of fish, for example, are covered by a kind of
Jelly caused by u chemical process with the Increased content of
aluminum. The fish can nwt breath normally and die.
SOIL
By expansion with water, soil has great resistance to
acidification, but this varies, of course, depending on the bedrock
and soil types. That Sweden (and Norway) ;!;e so hardly hit by
acidification Is mainly becau"^ ot our bedrock of granite with very
little limestone. Modern silviculture and agriculture help to create
Imbalances between the production and consumption of hydrogen Ions \a
the ground. We fertilize, we till the 30II and we harvest the plant
macs. When plants absorb nutrients they rid themselves of hydrogen
Ions at the same time, thus acidifying the soil. When, on the other
hand, parts of plants are left to rot, the process yoes In the other
direction and the soil becomes less acid.
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When the soil has become acidified plants can more easily absorb
heavy metals like cadmium. Our crops have ever higher contents of
cadmium and It Is not advisable to eat kidneys and liver of moose and
row-^deer because of the cadmium content!
FORESTS
The most evident effects of air pollution are seen In the
forests. It began with occasional reports but In 1984 ^orest damage
Is common In southwest Sweden where the dor/mani winds come from
southwest which means *rom Centra^ Europe and the UF. About 75% of
acid precipitation comes from abroad while the rest comes from our own
sources. Also, beeches and other deciduous forests are affected with
changes of colour of the leaves and stunted growth!
Other effects of acid rain
Groundwater Is affected and many water supplies are based on
oround water. Heavy metaU are dissolved In the water. Children come
oown with diarrhea and their hair becomes green because of the copper
In the water, etc.
The sulphur (and nitrogen) deposition causes corrosion of me^,als
with high costs every year. Still worse Is the Irreplaceable damage
to historical monuments. In the last 100 years many monuments have
suffered more than In many hundreds or thousand years past.
We face a world wide problem where not even the Arctic Is
healthy. The Ymer expedition In 1980 found that the Arctic becomes
the finci deposit of long-ranged transport air pollution from Europe
and North America. What does this mean for the climate?
With all this In mind we have star ,,ed many projects on how to give
Information about acid rain and Its effects to school children and to
show what can be done about It. A positive approach Is very
Important. A few schools have adopted a lake and made chemical and
biological Investigations and compared an acid lake with a healthy
lake. They have noted the differences, they have made studies In the
laboratory. Interviewed old people and fishermen on how It looked
years ago. Everything Is noted and followed up at different seasons.
Parents are Invited to learn about the problem as are local
authorities. Villagers are Invited to bring water from their wells
and have It analyzed. Last but not least, the children do something
about It. They I'me the lake In winter. (The lime Is paid for by the
authorities. Twelve million dollars yearly Is used for liming lakes
In Sweden!) The who^ - village Is engaged In this project.
Also, primary school children take active part and all teachers
and most subjects at school are Involved. Could you think ot a better
Integration of school subjects, of better balance between theoretical
knowledge and practical work, with an International outlook? "What I
hear I forget, what I see t remember, what I do understand" Is an
old Chinese proverb. The teachers Involved know It Is true. Similar
projects are now started to follow the changes In forests and In the
fields.
Much more could be said, but let me also mention than lUCN,
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191
Coninlsslon on Education through Us North West turopean Committee has
started a Joint acid rain project where Swedish and Norwegian
experiences are used from all the member countries and a teachers
training course Is being planned.
To ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems as
stated In the W^rld Conservatloii Strategy, we must fight a1r pollution
wUh every means there Is no time to wait. The degradation of
ecosystems Is accelerating and we all depend on them. There Is only
one earth!
VILA Allen, Barry. "People, Parks and Preservation* • Director of
Env1ronme;>tal Studies, Rollins College, Campus Box 2753, Winter
Park, Florida 32789, USA.
Perhaps the most underestimated (and under-researched) problem
facing preservation efforts today Is that of excessive and Improper
land acquisition. Government acquisition of private lands for
Incorporation Into National Parks, National Recreation Areas and other
components of the National Patk System has always been, and continues
to be, the protection strategy that has all but monopolized protection
efforts.
Increasingly this strategy Is being called Into question by
property owners In and around components of the National Park System,
by federal officials with budgetary responsibilities, by those
Interested In historic preservation, and belatedly, but finally by
conservationists as well. The long neglect of the problems associated
with land acquisition as a management tool (or the denial that
problems Indeed exist) threatens preservation efforts. By closing our
eyes to the Increasing problems of this approach, the "preservation
movement" has left fertile ground for the exploitation of this Issue
by those In the far right who are opposed, for Ideological or material
reasons, to any federal efforts to protect Important or threatened
land; and landscapes.
At Big Sur, along the scenic rivers of the Olympic Peninsula, on
the Upper Delaware, and elsewhere, preservation efforts have been
hafppered and even defeated by a fear of federal Intrusion Into the
lives, lifestyles, and livelihoods of local communities. These fears
are well-grounded; the usual NPS polKy of acquiring all lands within
park boundaries regardless of the need for a given parcel, the status
of a given parcel, or the threats to a given parcel has resulted In
many well publicized problems for Individuals, families and
communities .
It Is often argued by National Park Service officials that this U
a necessary evil, an unfortunate side effect of preservation efforts.
When questioned about the eviction of 142 families from along the
recently designated Middle Delaware Scenic River, an iiJPS official
remarked somewhat flippantly that "you gotta break some eggs to make
an omelette." This analogy 1s not only Insensitive, It Is also untrue.
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19?
European nations have for many years employej strategies for land
protection that are mu^^h less disruptive than those used by the
National Park Service. Recently, some parks In the United States have
begun to experlmen. ^ '^'^ many of these same approaches that minimize
outright acquisition
In fact, It could c argued that fee simple acquisition and Its
subsequent removal of local residents Is a less than satisfactory
.^reservation policy In many areas — especially those settled areas
with Important cultural, agricultural, and historic resou«^ces. Its
Impacts on property owners and local communities are severe. It Is
often not a cost effective way of preserving complex landscapes. And,
It Is often Inconsistent with the Intent of Congress and the
expectations of both local preservationists and area residents.
For example, at Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area
(DWGNRA) the National Park Service has followed a policy of total
acquisition. It now ow^s over 80 structures on the National Register
of Historic Places Inc ading several farms. All of these structures
were functioning and In fine repair when In private hands. Now,
lacking funds to maintain these properties, the NPS has allowed them
to fall Into disrepair and become the t-^^^get of vandals and arsonists.
At DWGNRA, Cuyahoga NRA, and Lake Charles NRA excessive
acquisition has decimated the tax base and disrupted essential
services. Including police and fire protection. In addition to the
hardships suffered at the community level, the Impact on families and
Individuals create hardships from ^rt^lch many never recover.
Recent 6A0 reports have charged that NPS land acquisition policies
often violate the Intent of Congress. At Big Cypress National
Reserve, Lower St. Croix National Scenic River, Golden Gate National
Recreation Area, Voyageurs National Park and other components of the
National Park System, officials failed to consider alternal ^e
strategies for land protection. This has resulted In large ^ost
overruns, delays In Implementing management plans, and considerable
111 will toward the Park Service and often preservation efforts as
well.
Despite the reluctance of federal officials to use them, there are
many effective strategies to protect valuable lands and landscapes
that Involve minimal acquisition of private lands. Local and state
zoning regulations, preservation easements, federal dredge and fill
regulations, tax Incentives and many other tools have been used
successfully all around the country and at all levels of government.
Adirondack State Park In New York and th'. Pinelands National
Reserve both show how regional planning can protect complex landscapes
without unnecessarily disruptino community life, lifestyles, and
livelihood. State scenic rivers programs In Wlsc-tnr.ln, ^ilnnesota and
Oregon Indicate that local zoning and state taxing duthorlty can be
used to preserve river corridors. The Upper Delaware Scenic River Is
a more recent attempt to Integrate all levels government and the
general public In the preservation effort.
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European countries, faced wUh considerable human activity within
proposed park areas have come up with Interesting and effective
strategies for land protection. In England and Wales, the Sreenbelt
Parks, the Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, and the National Parks
all use zoning controls developed by local planning authorities to
limit and control land use and developement. In West Geriiiany the
Natureparkes are managed to provide environmental preservation,
agricultural development an<5 recreation. The French National Regional
Parks Integrate nature and community. Local crafts, small family-run
lodgings and historic preservation are all Important components of
park planning. The goals for all these European park systems are
minimal land acquisition, minimal disruption of local ways of life and
preservation of the cultural landscape.
The U.S. National Park System Is growing >nd expanding Into areas
that have long since lost their "pristine" character. Hany of the
newer units of the National Park System have been settled for
generations. They possess not only natural resources, but cultural,
historic, and human resources as well.
The Inability or unwillingness to cope with existing and
^radltlonel communities In park areas Is a threat to existing parks
^nd their resources as well as to potential additions to the National
Park System.
None of this Is to argue that land acquisition Is not an Important
and often necessary tool for land protection. It should, however,
indicate that other protection strategies are often necessary. These
alternatives to land acquisition need to be explored and Implemented
when appropriate. It Is the almost total reliance on fee simple
acquisition which I am objecting to here. Other strategies have been
proven successful both here and abroad. These alternative strategies
dese»^ve greater attention by both government and the environment
community.
VII. B. Anderson, Eddie. "Creating Environmental Awareness Through
Natural Resource Education". Coordinator, Natural Resource and
Environmental Education Program, Forest Service. United States
Department of Agriculture, 12th and Independence SW. P.O. Box
2417, Washington, O.C. 20013, USA.
Introduction
Throughout Us history the Forest Service has uncertaken a number
of education programs to promote understanding and Knowledge In many
areas. These programs have been used, for example, to emphasize
research r^'SuUs and activities, cooperative forest fire prevention,
visitor Information and Interpretive services, environmental pollution
and litter, youth conservation work and environmental awareness, and
environmental education. Except for the environmental education
program, which Is broad In scope and focuses on resources In general.
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most of the efforts have been used to achieve an unusually high level
of success compared to campaigns and programs of other federal
agencies and national organizations.
Program
The Natural Resource and Environmental Education (NREE) Program Is
the newest Forest Service education program on line and competing for
acceptability and support. Begun In 1981, this program builds on the
Environmental Education program Introduced In 1970, As with the older
program, the basic focus Is on developing public skills for
understanding and Implementing environmental actions and programs*
The NREE program, however, goes farther In developing these skills
by providing Information relative to various elements Involved In
l ocal . regional and national resource issues . It also strengthens
support for land and resource management through organizational
relationships and external cooperation. Materials are developed for a
wide variety of audiences from youths In school and In conservation
and environmental education organizations to In-service and other
adult audiences.
Purpose and Oblectlves
The NREE program proposes to establish Itself as a vehicle for
accomplishing two basic purposes. These are (1) providing assistance
to resource managers In .neeting their program goals and objectives,
and (2) providing a balance between the technical and social processes
of the Agency by offering multi-audience education material and
processes for developing and conveying education, research and
technology transfer topics, results, and effects.
Environmental education In Its simplest form deals with
communicating the effects of human activity on the environment.
Therevore, relating the work of resource professionals under legal,
technical, social, and economic constraints contributes greatly to the
education process In this perspective the program also proposes to
expand knowledge of resource management by focusing on the
relationship of the professional resource manager and his/her
responsibility for stewardship through conservation, management,
planning, and design.
Hajor Characteristics
The NREE program has the following major characteristics:
1. It Is national In scope; that Is, It attempts to achieve Its
purposes and objectives on a nation-wide scale while
maintaining the flexibility to deal with local, regional, and
national matters and topics. All units of che agency are
affected by the program.
2. It promotes Internal support for the program through Internal
review of materials and planned communications of information
relative to issues and problems common to the various resource
management activities and groups.
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3. It competes for resources as do other programs and therefore
operates as efficiently In Its Anput/output relationships.
4. It provides outputs of Inforratlon and educational materials
for use by the agency and the public.
5. It Is resource Issue driven. As Issues change so does the
subject matter of the program. This process allows for
flexibility and ease In focusing on Issues determined to be of
Importance at a particular time.
Program Design
The design of the NREE program Is In response to many activities,
efforts, and trends that have taken place over the preceding years
since the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act. This
Includes the enactment of federal and state enabling legislation for
enhancement and support of environmental quality, management, and
protection; population migration to and from rural areas and the
effects of this phenomenon on the resource management and production;
changes 1n societal, organizational. Institutional, and Individual
values and decisionmaking strategies; and changes In outlook for
resource demand and supply.
Material Development
?<ater1als are developed by Interdisciplinary groups with agency
education specialists taking the lead In the work. The material Is
developed by use of a modular approach.
Modular Approach : The modular concept and approach for developing
resource education material Involves the use of a central building
block or unit around which other materials iwy be developed or adapted
for use with different audiences to achieve objectives. At least four
basic categories of material are Included In each module. These are:
1. Background material to cover areas such as the social history,
economics, social or psychological relationships, national and
state laws and/or local ordinances, national, state, and local
management plans, and emphasis areas, etc.
2. Learning activities and education exercises to Include features
such as Important definitions, field trips, problems, case
studies, mock plans, simulations, games, etc.
3. Briefing materials that Include supporting research results,
decisions, actions, or approaches that clarify, summarize, or
highlight the problem or Issue. These materials are presented
by means of video or slide tape, fact sheets, newspaper,
clippings, report summaries, or other suitable media.
Information Is also available on contact.
4. Reference and source material for review and/or additional
study of Issue components, relationships, effects, etc.
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This approach ls supported by:
1. Involvement of resource staffs most affected by the Issue.
2. Internal reviews by other resource staff members, Individuals,
and groups. This process in and of itself Is viewed as an
Important communc1at1on:> process with predictable positive
benefits.
3. Cooperation of all segments of the Forest Service National
Forest System (NFS), research, state and local agencies,
education, public and private organizations. Industry, and
other cooperators depending on the Issue. This Is highly
Important In that resou'^ce Issues almost always transcend
National Forest administration boundaries and affect other
people and resources. Materials developed cooperatively with
others tend to broaden the base of understanding and extend the
range and opportuntly for use.
Delivery System
The NREt program makes use of three methods of delivery:
1. Briefing sessions for selected audiences.
2. Workshops
a. To teach others to use existing material.
b. To develop material on an Issue of mutual Impo^-tance.
3. Exhibits and expositions.
Summary
The NREE progr^^m Is not a solution to all the problems ^he
Forest Service but 1t does have excUIng possibilities for some
areas. It can be very helpful In promoting environmental awareness,
rural oriented skills, and a better understanding of resource
management processes, problems, and Issues. The future of the program
Is dependent upon the support It receives from the Forest Service for
resi urces people and funds to make It go and upon support from
tht public. We hope these are forthcoming.
References
1. Carroll. Jefferson E. "Forest Service USOA: A Diversified
Program For Environmental Understanding,** Washington, O.C.
Unidentified,
2. Ellis, Thomas H. and Mace, Arnett C, Jr. ^Forest Research In
''lorlda.- Journal of Forestry , 1981. 79 (8), 502-505,515.
3. Johnson, Susan. "Population Dynamics in National Torest System
Zone of Influence." Washington O.C. USOA Forest Service,
Policy Analysis Staff, 1983.
4. Malsfc tt, John. Megatrends New York: Warner Books,
Incorporated, 1CB4.
5. USOA Forest Service "America's Renewable Resources: A Supplement
to the 1979 Assessment of the Forest and Range Land S1tudt1on
In the United States" Washington, O.C, 1984.
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VII. C. Barwise, Joanne. "Development of an Environmental Education
Centre: The History of Shannon Terrace Environmental
Education Centre". Environmental Education Coordinator, Fish
Creek Provincial Park, Box 2780, Calgary, Alberta T2P OYB,
Canada.
Park Development History
Local communities and conservation groups were largely responsible
for the creation of Fish Creek Provincial Park. City of Calgary park
planners proposed the park In 1966. In 1972, the Provlncia"
Government purchased some park ^and and In 1973, 15 million dollars
was allocated for Its development.
In 1973 a Fish Creek Advisory Committee was set up to determine
what kind of park the people of Calgary wanted Fish Creek to be.
Based on the results of a questionnaire published In Calgary's two
newspapers, a concept plan was developed. Public hearings were held
to obtain comments on the concept plan and a committee was struck to
coordinate the planning end Implementation. One of the committee's
reccmmendatlons was that facilities should be provided for
environmental education.
Shannon Terrace Environmental Education Centre
In 1979, the Minister of Recreation and Parks responded to
request: from the Calgary Board of Education and the recommendations
of the planning committee by announcing the development of the Shannon
Terrace Environmental Education Centre In Fish Creek Provincial Park.
Rather than build a new centre, one of the homes expropriated by
the government In purchasing the park's west end was deemed suitable
.or renovation.
Alberta Provincial Parks' environmental education and planning
staff and consultation with the Calgary Board of Education determined
how an existing building could be renovated to serve as a year-ground
environmental education centre. The 5,000 square foot building now
contains functional areas for public use, group use, and
administration. Because the centre is designed primarily for school
use, public access is limited to the main entry, reception/information
area. Areas available for group use include the orientation area,
three classrooms, an exhibit called the Discovery Room, resource
centre, and a small meeting room. The administration area contains
staff offices, workshops, storage and maintenance are.s.
The centre has a landscaped setting adjacent to oitu^al areas of
white sprucp, aspen, and balsam poplar forest. The programs utilize
the regular park trail system through a diversity of flora and fauna
and aquatic environments.
Three methods of operating the facility were considered: They
were as follows: (1) Provincial Parks operates the centre completely,
providing all staffing and programming; (2) Provincial Parks
coordinates use of the centre. Group leaders are responsible for
devising and conducting their own program; however. Provincial Parks
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will support materials and training for ti.em; and (3) The centre
operates on a concession basis by a private group, following minimal
guidelines established by Alberta Provincial Parks.
After the consideration of all alternatives, advant^aes and
disadvantages. Option 2 was adopted.
By 1981, building renovations were completed and an Environmental
Education Coordinator was hired to develop programs, control bookings,
develop exhibits, and plan the general operation of the centre. A
caretaker was hired to maintain the centre and grounds.
One year prior to the Centre's planned opening date, work beqan on
developing programs and purchasing furniture and necessary supplies
for the Resource Room. Initial priorities were In the development of
the centre's resources.
I. Display Development
Three areas In the centre were Identified as requiring displays of
various complexity: (1) Public Encry/Informatlon area; (2) Group
Orientation area; and (3) Discovery Room.
A Terms of Reference was developed and sent to five firms to bid
on.
Entry/Information Area
Entry exhibits were to establish a sense of arrival, capture
visitor's attention, stimulate curiosity and Introduce the centre.
Adjoining the entry Is the Information desk area. This area Is
designed tc provide park visitors with park information and schools
with a check-In point.
The Information desk was not designed to be operated as a full
time Information service with a special attendant. It was designed to
handle casual Information requests of drop-in visitors. When the
Environmental Education Centre Is closed, an Information lube, a type
found throughout the park, Is located outside the centre.
Directions to the contractor were limited to general objectives
that we hoped the completed exhibits would fulfill, l.e ep*ry
exhibits now consist of historical panels above and beh -) the
Information desk. Two panels, one on the Centre, the o on the
park are part of a wall unit with doors that open to sK^le niessages
or Photographs on the Centre and park themes. The doors work well 1n
stimulating a degree of curiosity and visitor Interest in what is
behind them.
Group Orientation
Alberta Recreation and Parks Environmental Education Policy
emphasized the "...development of support materials and the training
of user group leaders and not actual field deli very .. .of programs."
Because of this and the stress on non-consumptive public use and
preservation of resources, it was felt that park-conducted orientation
should be provided tc all groups to set the proper tone tor the
groups' activities and to heighten the park's personal profile as the
administrator and custodian of the park.
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The objectives of this orientation area were to: (1) establish
Immediately the participatory/Interactive aspect of the centre ari Its
program; and (2) orient group visitors to the facilities, natural and
cultural history of the park and define env1ronmf*ntal education
concepts that are appropriate.
The exhibit design that was accepted Included a large stylized
pa\k map with doors that opened to photographs and exhibits supporting
a complete park discussion, and special puzzle seats that teach two
pirk/envlronmental themes. Both the map and the seats are used by the
groups and seem to fulfill their Intended purpose very well.
Discovery Room
The main objective of the project was to produce an Innovative
hands-on exhibit systt-m, which would be child directed rather than
teacher directed. It was hoped that positive experiences In
self-discovery gained In the Discovery Room would reinforce the
self-discovery program developed for the field.
The exhibit themes planned were diverse and meant to employ a wide
variety of media, sensory experience and Intellectual development. We
hoped U would be like a giant environmental education toy box that
could never be utilized In one session anJ would require repeat
visits. The level of preparation required for this contract was very
high. Contractors cannot be expected to research and produce such
exhibits to meet the particular vision of park personnel. By
providing all written material and reference materials for graphics
and minutely detailed specifications, this project succeeded. Without
the detailed specifications and close liaison with key park staff. It
Is doubtful that most companies would even bid on such a project.
Exhibits completed to date Include elaborate animal and plant
costumes. Discovery Boxes, Feely Bags, kaleidoscope, Children of Fish
Creek, an Energy Game, and a Beaver Lodge.
All materials were thoroughly reviewed and edited a number of
times by a team of visitor services personnel representing park,
region and head office levels. This process contributed greatly to
the overall quality of the exhibit.
II. Program Development
Concurrent with exhibit development was the development ot school
programs. During the previous planning phases, several things were
decided prior to staff arrival: (1) that programs would be
teacner-conducted; (2) that park staff would greet and orientate
groups to the centre; and (3) that park staff would conduct workshops
for teachers to familiarize them with the program and the facilities.
GU'en these, programs needed to be developed that keyed into the
Alberta curriculum, were targeted to grade levels that conducted a lot
of field trips, tied into park themes, and had an environmental
education philosophy and process.
A basic program and activity sequence was established in the first
program to serve as a model for all subsequent programs developed. It
was decided that the first two programs would be ENERGY and CYCLES.
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Both topics support the Environmental Education policy and school
curriculum. Further, they are core curriculum topics for the most
easily accessible markets—grades 4 to b. To attract Interest and
curiosity, these programs were Intended to be very active and
participatory.
The activities were test run by the Environmental Education
Coordinator on summer day camps, modified and then Incorporated Into
the program package. The programs were reviewed by teachers, school
board consultants and park staff* This process was followed for all
the programs developed.
III. Operating Plan
A Centre Operating Plan was developed by park, regional, and head
office staff, to provide operational guidelines based on Environmental
Education policy within the constraints of staff, and resources
available. The plan was the directing document during the Initial
year of facility operation which began In September 1982, and Is
subject to periodic review and modification. The operational methods
In the plan were designed to makf* the best use of existing resources
and staff, and to ensure that high standards are maintained,
consistent with the overall standards and level of service provided at
Fish Creek Provincial Park. The plan also served as a tool to
familiarize Recreation and Parks staff and client groups with the role
and functions of the facility.
An Operating Plan Is Important. The Centre plan identified
specific issues that are not usually addressed 1n facility planning.
For example, centre promotion, method of booking, hours of operation,
visitor Information, method of group orientations, outdoor group use
impact assessment, program options for teachers, and so on. It
provides guidelines that ensure continuity of operation. Staff may
change but the plan does not. The plan helped to minimize the
possibility of conflicts brought about by unrealistic expectations at
otner levels of the organization or potential confusion resulting from
a lack of established procedures.
The Shannon Terrace Environmental Education Centre currently has
12 teacher-conducted programs. Teachers booking Into the facility
attend a workshop ar. the Centre prior to arriving with their group.
Each teacher receives a program package which contains preparatory,
on-site, and post visit activities.
During the school year 1982-83, the first year of operation,
school visitation was 4,289. In 1983-84, 7,683 visited. The centre's
optimal use is approximately 10 to 11,000 students.
Its success can be contributed to a large extent to tha planning
prior to opening the doors to schools. More reviews are expected of
the Operating Plan to ensure the smooth operation of the centre; as
well, more schools will be using the centre.
During the 2 years of op3rat1on, several teachers have made as
many visits as 6 with classes. The program: have been designed to
allow repeat visits and we are pleased to see teachers viewing and
using the centre as a viable, reliable resource to teach in the
outdoors.
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The centre 1s a commitment by Alberta Recreation and Parks 1n the
field of Environmental Education and will be part of our heritage and
the education of our children.
VII. 0. Coombs, Mary S. *The Students are the Explorers, Discoverers
and Scientists." Coordinator of Children's Programs, Arnold
Arboretum, Box 39i), Franconia, Hampshire 03580, USA.
At the Arnold Arboretum, Boston children are having the experience
of being explorers, discoverers, and scientists. Boston area teachers
are discovering the Arboretum's Children's Program as a way of
covering parts of their curriculum withoul their having to become
Instant botanists.
The Arnold Arboretum Is located In Jamaica Plain, a section of
boston, Massachusetts. This 265-acre collection of woody plants was
designed by Frederick Law Olmstead, and contains trees, shrubs, and
vines from temperate regions throughout the world.
The Arnold Arboretum was the first arboretum Intended for both
university and public use. It Is a part of the Boston City Park
system and of Harvard University. In addition to being a valuable
scientific Institution, the Arboretum offers many educational programs
and evf^nts.
The newest addition to our public programs Is the Children's
Program. It consists of four FIELD STUDY EXPERIENCES. Each
Experience teaches a hands-on lesson In botany, natural history, and
ecology, while Integrating other skills and disciplines.
For years science curriculum has been a lew priority In many
school systems throughout the country. In the Boston Public Schools
(BPS), the quality of science education has been declining,
particularly In the elementary grades. There are several factors
which contributed to this problem. These Include: low teacher morale
and weak science training; funding limitations; and no updated,
systemwide set of standards.
In the fall of 1983, a new citywide Science and Health curriculum
was developed and distributed to the schools In Boston and to several
science Institutions, Development of these curriculum objectives was
a great rtep towards clarifying what Is expected In the classroom from
educators. However, given the present state of training of teachers
and tlie resources available to them, many are overwhelmed by the bulk
of Information for which they are now responsible.
The Arnold Arboretum was one of the Institutions contac^^ed as a
resource to provide supplemental assistance to the schools. Museums
and science centers offer new methods and creative approaches with the
use of collections, reference materials, and specialized staff. These
Institutions are equipped to teach many area?; of science with
expertise and resources not available In the classroom.
This year, the BPS Issued an "Implementation Plan." Cited are
three ways In which outside InstltutlCMS can help Implement the
curriculum. They are: conducting teacher training workshops,
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m
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providing materials and outreach personnel » and curriculum-based
classes at institution sites.
In response to thU request and In recognition of the nc^d for
Improved science education » we have begun a program of as:k1 stance t3
elementary schools » Including: the Field Study Experiences » a
resource to teachers » and a reference center
The Field Study Experiences
The FSE's do many things. They are designed to give the students
the experience of being explorers » discoverers » and scientists. They
are hands-on and act1v1t1es«based. They Integrate the basic skills of
reading and mathematics* and the arts and humanities. Each child
creates a tangible product » leaving the expedience with their own
chart, arawing or poem. Lastly, the TSE's teach science as a living
process, rather than a dead language. All programs stress development
of the skills of observing. Investigating and asking questions.
Because the birth of this program coincides with the release of
the new BPS Science and Health curriculum, in many cases we were able
to address the objectives directly.
The four Field Study Experiences are: HEMLOCK HILL, AROUND THE
WORLD WITH TREES, PLANTS IN AUTUMN, SEEDS AND LEAVES, and FLOWERS.
HEMLOCK HILL Is a studv In forest ecology. The students are first
given an Introduction to these topics through a discussion and display
of materials, after which we travel to the other side of the Arboretum
to explore the native ^tand of hemlocks.
There, they observe and measure several environmental parameters
such as wind, light, climate, and blotic surroundings, as well as
their feelings about a space. It is a comparative study recorded on a
simple chart, requiring the use of basic skills.
When the chart has been completed, *:he students have collected
data from two distinct areas; the base, which Is an open lawn
environment, and the cool, forested top of Hemlock Hill.
Tho walk from the base to the top of t;.e hill Is loosely
ft-uctured, and the children are free to collect, explore, inspect,
e^d Investigate whatever catches the1»^ eye. They are provided with
bugboxes and magnifying gla<^ses. The walk back to their buz is
usually filled with questioi.. many of which are answered with a
question for them: "What do ^ou think?"
In > ROUND THE WORLD WITH TREES , students explore the collection of
deciduous trees, focusing on the Arnold Arboretum's special role in
plant exploration and cultivation. This program stresses the positive
impact that humans can have on a natural environment.
Once the children arrive, they view a specially designed slide
show on the plant explorers. They learn about the travels of Ernest
'Chinese* Wilson, who introduced over 1500 new plants into cultivation
from the far east.
The activities start outdoors with specimens located around the
Visitor Center. The students first assume ♦'he role of a plant
hunters-exploring unch^^irted land in search of new plant species, and
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observing individual trees with regard to size, shape, form, color,
tlower and fruit. Because the name and the coui ry of origin roust be
filled In on the chart, the children learn to rebd and Interpret the
labels which are found on all specimens. Tape measures and magnifying
glasses are used.
Ihls program brlrgs the students on a walk to the pond area where
one Is apt to hear "the amphibian overture to spring" or see a great
blue heron at the water's edge.
In the fan children may participate In PLANTS IN AUTUKW: SEED S
AND LEAVES . In this FSE, they expi^^re the arboretum's paths observing
and collecting seeds and leaves from a wide variety of plants, noting
their seasonal changes.
The students are able to bring back their s-^ed and leaf collection
to their classroor^ for later use. They learn about preparation for
winter by plants and animals, structure of flowers and seeds, plant
reproduction' seed dispersal and germination, and uses of seed'i for
animals and humans.
This program brings the students along th^ meadow area to the
maple grove. Leaves are Inspected and seasondl coloration Is
discussed. Jere they can compare leaf shape and color of some of the
137 different kinds of maples at the arboretum.
FLOWERS Is a strong botanical lesson. At the arboretum, children
have the opportunity to see growing flowers, rather than learning
flower structure from generic models. Through the study of flower
structure the concept of family and Identification Is Introduced.
Pollination mechanisms are Investigated and observed. Early spring
and seasonal changes that plants undergo are witnessed. Children see
that most trees Indeed have flowers. They see a wide diversity of
flower form: dandelions, magnolias, willows and more. Flowers In
this setting ':an be appreciated for their "Ingenious" design and
"smart" aJap 'e features.
Resource to Teachers
The children are not the only stt^dents. The teacher as well gains
a useful science lesson from the FSE's. In fact, when a trip Is
scheduled, a pre- and post-visit packet Is s^ent to the teacher. The
contents of this package Includes materials tu be used in preparation
for the visit, handy activities and lesson plans, as well as follow-up
materials to complete the experience for teacher and student. This
Information helps ease any anxiety which may be Involved In field trip
planning.
Much time Is spent by the coordinator and teacher discussing the
particular needs of the Indlvlduo'^ "lasses and the tailoring of the
appropriate FSE to fit those need^ .
Reference Collection
In addition to our FSE's and outreach services, the Arnold
Arboretum maintains a collection of books, articles, films, journals,
slides, posters, and field guides which may be borrowed free of charge
by teachers. All materials relate to the natural sciences, with
special emphasis on botany and science education.
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The Guides
The volunteer guides are a very Important part of the program
which Involves their recruitment, training and coordination. These
guides are parents, retired persons, college students, professionals,
and former teachers.
An guides participate In an Arnold Arboretum course entitled
"Sharing Nature with Children: Training Guides For Children's
Tours." In this 15 hour course, each participant receives an
Introduction to the Arboretum s history, purposes, resources, and
collections, as well as needed botanical and ecological facts*
Guldes-ln- training are led through the actual FSE's, which equip them
to lead classes through those same programs* New guides are urged to
participate first as observers and then to lead groups on their own.
Development of the Children's Program as a whole has Involved
liaison with teachers, science coordinators, administrators, and
parent groups of the Boston area schools* Tnis stage Is extremely
Important, 1n fact, crucial* Without establishing this relationship,
no program can hope to be adopted and used* How did we do this?
We visited local schools and presented the program to principals,
teachers, and their classes* Several meetings were held with
representatives of various BPS agencies. We started with the
Institute for Professional Development to discuss teacher training and
explore effective means of communicating with elementary school
teachers.
After a k.iajor mailing and our "crusades" were underway, a meeting
was held with the manager of Instructional Services, whj designed the
curriculum. He enthusiastically reviewed the Program and commended It
as a model of an Integrated approach to achieving the curriculum
objectives.
The Arboretum education staff have been cooperating with other
science institutions in the Boston area as a member of the Cultural
Education Collaborative, an institution sesponsible for helping the
city's schools to better utilize the area's tesources.
In the first year cne Arnold Arboretum's Children's Program has
been applauded by school administrators, educators, and of course, the
children. In fact, a major school system in the Boston area has
incorporated the FSE's into their fourth grade science curriculum for
the 19P/-85 school year as a way to strengthen their plant science
component.
By participating in an FSE, an urbar ^,hild has the opportunity to
feel, see. r.ear, and smell, elements of the natural world. Each child
is 'encouraged co ask questions and then Is guided to discover the
answers through his/her own observations and investigations.
The Arnold Arboretum's Field Study Experiences are designed to
Improve the quality of science education by conveying solid scientific
content and involving students and teachers alike in fun. hmds-on
activities.
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VII. E. eortner. N1na. "Exploration Into the Night Environment",
FnvUonmental Education Specialist. Land Between the Lakes -
Tennessee Valley Authority, Golden Pond, Kentucky 42231, USA.
This workshop presented a collection of activities that could be
conducted while on a night hike. The activities range from flashlight
exploration to a deeper understanding of the night environment by
participants achieving night vision. This program Is highly
applicable to all env1ronment<kl education resident programs and
Interpretative facilities. Major focus was on heightening sensory
awareness, animal communications, and programming skills by enforcing
sound environmental education concepts during a time of day which Is
ofter^ under utilized. Each participant received a copy of the
TVA-Land Between the Lakes Environmental Education Curriculum Guide:
"Exploring the Night Env1ron??iC*it".
VII. F. Green, H. David. "Coastal Issues Small Grant Program".
Regional Extension Specialist, NYS Sea Grant Extension
Program, 21 South Grove Street, East Aurora, New York 14052,
USA.
Environmental and Ecological Illiteracy is the most pressing
secular Issue addressing the world today. Because of It most of the
other world problems, from racism to world nunger, exist. Getting our
youth Involved with Informed natural resource decisions that can lead
to better communities Is an Important task for the formal and
non-formal educator.
The 4-H Coastal Issues Program provides small grants to New York's
Coperatlve Extension Associations to assist In the development
efforts which Involve youth and the coast. Grants are made available
for one year to Initiate new and Innovative projects concerning the
cuast> The program over the past two years, with around $4500, has
gsnerated over $40000 In support dollars from the local communities
applying for the grants. Potential program dollars for continuation
number in the hundreds of thousands.
A typical amount awarded has been $750. While proposals covering
any coastal Issue have been considered, ^our areas are emphasized:
the coastal environment; erosion control, shoreline stabilization,
coastal vegetation; nutritional aspects of seafood use; and coastal
heritage, recreation and tourism. Although service projects are
supported, It Is expected that youths participating In 4~H/CI programs
win be encouraged to:
1. Participate on an equal basis with adults In the decision
making process.
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2. Assume a high degree of responsibility for themselves, for
the project and for others. It Is Important that other
people In the program depend on e?ch youth to fulfill
Important responsibilities.
3. Interact with persons different from themselves, e,g,, those
of different ages or of different physical, mental or social
conditions.
4. Make significant contributions to the community and the
coast. The significance Is based on whether both youth and
adults consider the contribution important.
5. Learn both the subject matter and the processes of the
coast— political, business, social and educational— relative
to the specific program*
5. Concentrate on a goal over a period of time. This Is a skill
discouraged in schools by the constant changing of classes.
It Is important that participants have the opportunity to
reflect upon their experiences In order to help Integrate
them Into their base of knowledge.
7. Have the opportunity to fail, and to learn from that
failure. Adults often c'lalm that one can learn the most not
from success but from failure. With youth, however, we try
to guarantee success, either by selecting tasks that are too
easy or which entail little risk, or by doing too much for
youth Instead of with them.
The program has Initiated marlculture projects, marine recreation
projects, water quality Investigations, and wildlife Inventories.
Three such funded projects are of particular Interest and will be
discussed In thVJ presentation.
Queens Catherine iMarsh Wildlife Inventory
The Queens Catherine Marsh Wildlife Inventory Project developed
and conducted an Inventory of wildlife associated with the newly
Installed open water areas In Queen Catherine Marsh to assess the
Impacts of the Improved habitat on wildlife and to aid NYSOEC In their
management of the marsh. Members of the locc^ Junior naturalists club
and the seventh, eight, and ninth graders at the local middle school
undertook the year long Inventory and shared the results with the
NYSOEC, the Friends of Queen Catherine Marsh and other Interested
people. Cornell University's Natural Resources staff was actively
Involved with the project. The successful Inventory will be conducted
periodically In the future In cooperation with Cornell, NYSOEC and
other local agencies, groups, and colleges.
Hard Clam Rafting: Marlculture Project.
Agriculture has been a traditional source of 4'H projects.
Marlculture Is the culturing of marlneorganlsms In a controlled
environment. In coastal communities, marlculture may prove to be a
viable source of 4-H programming and a source of Income to th^
community. On Long Island the marlculture of hard clams provides the
opportunity for clam fishery which provides many economic and
recreational benefits to New York State. However, the hard clam
fVhery Is In the state of decline. Methods to Increase the stock of
^ hard clams are needed. One experimental technique Is the raising of
t\\\L the clams In 20S
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rafts. youth, by growing clams 1n rafts, had the opportunity to
work on an Important comminlty Issue, to provide scientific data to
researchers, and to explore marine careers. Some twenty 4^H teens
were Involved In the project that was located at the SUNY at Stony
Brook unuer the watchful eyes of fisheries biologists from Stony Brook
and New York Sea Grant. Since that time other projects have been
launched In other areas of Suffolk County Long Island.
Sport Fisheries Clubs
Taking advantage of the natural ability of fishing to recruit kids
Into youth groups, this pilot combined Natural Resources and
Recreation focuslny on the marine environment .The development of 4-H
sport fishing clubs was believed to be a great way to generate greater
Interest among youth In marine Issues. Spor^ fishlny Is a subject
area that can help attract all types of people to the study of the
environment as It Is a life long sport that can be undertaken cheaply
without Interference from either artificial or real barriers. In
addition there Is an ample supply of adult leadership. On Long Island,
the site of the project, over 50 adult sport fishing clubs exist. In
this program 25 youth took part In a sport fishing project taught by
volunteer expert anglers and were taught related science and
environmental concepts by university and extension specialists. Since
the Initiation of this project the Department of Natural Resources at
Cornell and New York Sea Grant have decided to make It a state wide
program with several years and thousands of dollars of support.
The Coastal Issues Small Grant Program must be Jujged a success If
the criteria of perceived value to the IocjI community and additional
dollars of support (as well as number of hours of volunteer time) are
taken Into consideration. The projects generated have been good to
outstanding and each has gained immeasurable support. One cannot
underestimate the Impact of the Clam Clubs on their communities and
the warm acceptance by the Daymen and local government. Sportflshing
Clubs may have the ability to attract hundreds of thousands of youth
to leern about the waters of New York State. The Queens Catherine
Marsh study will give a group of Schuyler County youth the opportunity
to work with their parents and adult leaders to make decisions about a
piece of their environment. These and the other Coastal Issues
projects are giving youth the opportunity to learn success and failure
hand In hand with the adult leaders and e^^crts of their community.
Whether this work will aid In the development of an Informed adult
population In years to come Is still to be know. But It Is the
opinion of this presenter that It will, c.nd that the problem of
environmental Illiteracy will be lessened to a certain extent.
VII. G. K-^rdlng, Karen. "Interconnectedness : The Emerging
Haradigm". Instructor, Ft. Stellacoon Community College,
9401 Farwest Drive, Tacoma, Washington 9849B, USA.
To most people the view of the world that Is used In science seems
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very far removed from their everyday life. In fact, science has a
profound effect on how we view the world around us. Each day we are
exposed to millions of bits of information, yet we choose to pay
attention co only a very few of them. Were we to attend to each bit
of Information that presents itself to us we would quickly be
overwhelmed. Rather than arbitrarily choosing one bit of Information
over another, we typically attend to those bits of information that
fit Into a pattern. The pattern that I am referring to is our view of
the world: our paradigm. Recent findings in science are suggesting
the need for a revolutionary change in our paradlspn concerning how the
world Is organized and how it operates >
At least since the time of Hewton we have tended to view the world
as a collection of separate entities. We expect that the apple that
fell and hit Newton on the head would have fallen In the sanie manner
and at the same velocity regardless of whether or not he had been
sitting under the tree. The fact that he was sitting under the tree
had no Impact on the behavior of the apple. We assume that the
entitles that make up the world have a set of properties that are
attributable to the object itself and act to separate the object from
its surroundings. This view Is the scientific view of the world and
also corresponds to our common sense view of the world.
During the twentieth century a number of research findings In
environmental science, brain research and particle physics have called
this well-accepted worl(«v1ew into question. A change in our worldvlew
will affect each of us as Individuals and will also affect our social
Institutions. I have chosen to focus on the scientific findings that
show a need for this paradigm shift and then discuss changes that It
will bring about In the practice of education.
The need for a shift In our thinking that will Include the
Importance of Interconnections is very apparent In ecology. Ecology
1s a fairly new discipline and includes as one of Its basic tenets the
Idea that objects ? j more appropriately viewed In terms of their
Interactions with other objects than as a collection ot separate
objects, with this as a basis, the field of ecology has led us to ne\
Insights about the Inner workings of nature. One brief but familiar
example involves the use of the pesticide DDT. When DDT was
originally used, only the direct effects of the pesticide were
considered. It was only later that we became aware of the effects of
the blomagnlflcat^on of DDT within an ecosystem.
The field of ecology has been considered by some to be a special
case by virtue of its emphasis on Interconnections. But, In the
twentieth century the idea of Interconnections has become Increasingly
Important 1n other fields of science such as subatomic physics. The
field of subatomic physics is the current focus of man's long term
search for an understanding of what the world Is made of and how It Is
all held together. Early In the nineteenth century there was general
agreement that the atom was the most basic part of matter. Later in
that century It was learned that atoms themselves were made up of
something even more fundamental: protons, neutrons and electrons.
All of these sub-atomic particles exhibit unusual behavior. For
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example, the electron appears not to have any properties until
something Interacts with It. The type of properties that are seen
depend on the nature of the Interaction between the experimenter and
the electron. This conflicts with our common sense which tells us
that an object has a certain set of properties regardless of whether
anyone Irte'^acts with It or not.
Just as an electron appears not to have any definite properties
until one Interacts with It, the same may be true of Ihe universe as a
whole. As an example, one of the current theories of brain structure
and function suggests that the properties of the universe arise as a
result of Individual's Interaction with It. This Idea Is a result of
the work of Karl Pribram, who after many years spent studying the
brain, has proposed that the basic structure of the brain Is
holographic. Pribram sees the brain not as an Intricate set of wiring
but Instead as a pattern of Interacting waves. His theory proposes
that patterns of Interactions within the brain Itself Interact with
the wave nature of the universe to produce patterns that we then
recognize as objects. This theory Implies that the Interactions
between the brain and the universe are crucial and In fact that the
brain helps to determine the nature of the universe.
These descriptions, although brief, do point out the Increasing
emphasis that Is being given to the Idea of Interconnectedness In
three widely divergent areas of science. A shift In our paradigm to
Include the Idea of Interconnections will have major Impacts
throughout cur society and will certainly be felt In the field of
education.
Education and educational practices are themselves caught up In
the Idea of separateness . Examples Include the separation of academic
disciplines from one another, the attitude that the most appropriate
way for learning to take place Is for the Instructor to talk and the
student to listen, and the feeling that a students 's personal life has
no place In the classroom. A perspective that sees Interconnections
as fundamental show us that an Individual's personal life and
self-Image are closely tied to his or her ability to learn. Most of
us have seen examples of the effect on an Increase In self-^conf Ideice
on someone's ability to master the material being studied.
In addition to confidence, context Is also Important. The
Importance of context goes beyond the need to present topics in such a
way that the relationship of one topic to another Is apparent. If the
learner Is aware of the relationship between the topic under study and
the rest of his life, the learning process becomes more effective.
The level of personal motivation also Is very important. When we are
personally motivated It Is not only easier to learn It Is also easier
to remember.
In thinking back to what Is remembered from our own schooling,
certain things stand out. For most of us, the Items that stand out
are those that were presented In some manner that was out of the
ordinary. These experiences help us remember things In a way that Is
not just "mental". The sense that a baker has of how to bake bread 1s
very different from that of som^»one who has only read a bread recipe.
The type of learning that takes place when one actually experiences
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the making of bread 1s often Ignored In the educational system. We,
as Instructors, often expect students to learn how something happens
by Just reading about It or listening to a lecture. Including
activities other than reading and listening In a classroom will have
beneficial effects on learning. The use of visualization, relaxation,
and body movement techniques help the learner remember In ways that
purely mental exercises do not.
Cross-disciplinary courses are yet another way In which the Idea
of Interconnectedness can be Incorporated Into the educational
system. Although this Is not a new concept I am suggesting a new
approach. Most often a cross-disciplinary course Involves Instructors
from a number of different disciplines all looking at the same
problem. Too often the student Is expected to do all of the
Integration of one subject area with another. What I am suggesting Is
the actual integration of a number of different subject areas into one
course where the Integration of subject areas Is as Important as the
content of the course.
Few educators would argue with the need to Integrate the body of
Information that a student Is exposed to Into some sort of coherent
scheme. What Is needed therefore Is a commitment to bring this about
In the classroom and a sense 3f how this can be accomplished.
Guidance can be found In an analysis of the need for a shift In our
paradigm concerning the nature of the world and how It operates. If
we see the world as a coherent whole rather than as a collection of
separate parts, we will be better able to share with others our
understanding of the Interconnections between different subject areas
and their different ways of looking at the world. The need for a
viewpoint that focuses on Interconnections Is receiving support from a
number of fields of scientific endeavor and will have a major impact
on the field of education.
VII. H. Hopkins, Charles. "Incorporating the Built Environment In a
Comprehensive Environmental Education Program". Boyne River
Ndtural Science School, 19 Grenadier Heights, Toronto,
Ontario M6S 2W5, Canada.
(Text 1s not available)
VII. I. Kennedy, Carolyn L. "Strategies for Involving Youth in
Wildlife and Environmental Issues". Director, Elliott
Wildlife Values Project, Girl Scouts of the USA, 830 Third
Avenue, New York, New York 10022, USA.
The workshop Introduced the materials available from Girl Scouts
of the USA for wildlife and environmental education. Through research
and role-playing, the participants explored the depths and comf»lex1ty
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of a variety of cnvli omental Issues of thts process, students can
learn skills necessary for active pa»^t1c1pat1on In resolving
environmental problems.
VII. J. McDonald, Kevin. "Community Environmental Education In New
South Ual ^tralla: Issues, Strategies and Challenges".
President, .^w^clatlon for Ef<v1ronmental Education (N.S.W.),
P.O. Box li4. New Lambton 2305, New South Wales, Australia.
There seems to be an assumption In much of the literature on
environmental education that education about . In and for the
environment Is the preserve of formal education systems. Where It 1s
conceded that education of the total community regarding environmental
phenomena and Issues might be undertaken. It Is assumed tiiat the
methods and strategies of formal education are applicable. This paper
proposes that: (1) E.E. of the adult (non-sch^'ol) population
represents a vast area of neglect, yet of enormous potential; (2)
traditional educational methods, techniques and strategies of the
formal education system are not particularly relevant or acceptable to
the adult community; (3) ccmm^nlty E.E. Initiatives should not. In
general, be publlcy referrco co as "environmental education", but
rather be promoted under a suitable banner which Is appropriate for
the particular time, event, place and people Involved.
Although the writer feels that there has been an Improvement In
society's regard for the environment. It Is clear that streets still
tend to be littered, streams continue to be poMuted, soil erosion Is
occurring on a massive scale, freeways proliferate, noise Irritates
millions of people, glass and metals continue to be burled In sanitary
landfill operations, trees are being felled at an alarming rate, and
so on. Hence this paper addre5;ses the Questions: (1) how might the
community be "better educated" concerning environmental issues, and
(2) If the methods of the formal education system are not appro: ^^te
to the adult community, then what alternative methods and strategies
might be used? The paper examines those attributes of the adult
community which make the approaches of formal education unacceptable.
Attention Is drawn to those particular environmental Issues which
affect the Individual directly and for %*h1ch appropriate skills and
strategies necessary for effective community participation are lacking.
A case study will serve to highlight a procedure and strategies
which were particularly effective In a public education program. The
Issue concerned public participation In sewage disposal op^'^ons for
the city of Newcastle (New South Wales). The relevant responsible
body (the Hunter District Water Board) appointed a Community Educator
for a four-month period to 1nf<?rm and Involve the public In the
Board's decision-making process. The paper describes how the educator
proceeded with the project and how lessons wf^re learned In the course
of the public education exercise. The program. 4^% highly successful
and possessed the following attributes:
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used only one paid person
was very economical In terms of money spent for Interest
obtained
Involved many resource people In the community
reached many thousands of people (e.g., at "open days")
raised Immense public Interest generally (e.g., press letters)
derived excellent media support (was seen as a "good story")
resulted In a detectable change of opinion
witnessed a more positive. Informed attitude develop towards
the Hater Board and Its problems
Increased the level of public knowledge (e.g., regarding
problems of engineering, concept of collform counts)
was seen as a democratic process by many people in the
community
resulted In a reduction of conflict and tension In the
community
Other case studies Involving the Association for Environmental
Education (N.S.W.) working at the community level Include: the Wyong
Valleys Study; the work of an environmental education coordinator on
the Central Coast; the management of wetlands and small farms;
observance of 1982 Year of the Tree.
Resulting from some experience with community Involvement In
environmental declslon-roaking. It has become Increasingly clear that
each Issue "stands alone" in many respects. It Is not possible to
have one formula, or one riiodel, for dealing with various environmental
Issues In the community, even though there is certainly a suite of
specific strategies which might be mobilized where appropriate, it
has to be remembered that each case Is different: the issue Is
different, dlffe'^ent people are involved. With few exceptions, people
are only "turned on" when they are directly affected by a particular
Issue, usually only in their own community. There is something if an
"ambulance service" character for community environmental education.
The reality Is that the real community needs are "out there" In that
community. It Is not a scene of classrooms, chalkboards, overhead
projectors, and erudite lecturers.
Thus a set of postulates emerges for community E.E.:
1. adult (non-formal) educa'lon Is concerned with a clientele
which cannot, or prefers not to, meet the terms and
conditions or products that are marked In formal mainstream
education;
2. there Is no one best method of adult (environmental)
education; it Is an entrepreneurial activity responding to
Individual needs In unique ways, utilizing all the
community's resources;
3. there Is no one over2ll body which the public Identifies as a
contact point for informed environmental Information.
4. It Is not helpful to talk atout "model" programs; each
program Is designed for a "one-off" occasion to handle the
unique need by the best~1n-the-c1rcumstances provision at the
time.
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An Important message for educators 1s hlcihlighted: Community l.Z,
programs nee^' to be carefully aimed at the needs of specific
audiences, conducted at appropriate venues (some of which might be
quite unus'saU\ and timed to receive maxiimim public acceptance.
Everyday citizens do not comprise a "captive audience" as school or
college students. The community educator must be skilled al assessing
the appropriateness of time, place, event and target audience.
The concepts of "trickle" and "surge" educational prograuis for the
community in respon:^e to reacting to environmental issues are also
important. By "trickle" E.E., the wV:(ct means the provision of
on-going, adult education courses, classes, seminars, field d^ys,
camps, etc., open to the public throughout the year, and conducted
through various agencies including Adult Education Boards, University
extension programs, and local conservation/environment organizations.
By "surge" E.E., the writer means something which currently does not
exist, at least in the Australian setting: the appointment of paid
community educators - personnel skilled in adult education procedures
and approaches, and having, as a secondary, but Important
consideration, a strong interest in environmental matters. First and
foremost, however, these people must be EDUCATORS.
The question is examined: wtiich Is the appropriate employing
authority? Several possible "contenders" are ruled out for various
reasons. Two possible bodies (at least for the scene In this State)
are the Department of Technical and Further Education (T.A.F.E.),
and/or the Board of Adult Education. The point is made that not all
trained teachers will necessarily make effective community (aduU)
educators. The task needs a person with entrepreneurial skills, and a
flair for an integrated, holistic approach to learning. Community
E.E. is a very special vocation. Wany excellent environmental ists
would not necessarily make good environmental educators. However,
doubtless some would.
The paper then looks briefly at some strategies tor effective
community E.E. and draws attention to the outstanding contribution
made by some innovative people in this field. The pioneering work of
Professor William Stapp of the University of Michigan is highlighted.
Challenges for the future are indicated.
In New South Wales the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act
(1979) of State Parliament enabled public input into the environmental
decision-making process. Although this legislation is greeted with
some enthusiasm, the criticism is made that the citizenry is yet to be
equipped with the knowledge and skills for adequate and meaningful
participation. Attention is drawn to the establishment, in 1983, of
the Environmental Education Advisory Committee. This government
committeee has produced its first Report: The Scope of Environmental
Educ tion in New South Wales > The committee has also established a
sub-committee to examine community E.E. specifically. The next task
to be taken on by the Advisory Committee will be the drawing up of a
State Plan for E.E. in N.S.W. Although New South Wales is the first
state in Australia to instigate such a development, we are far behind
the United States of America where State Plans for E.E. have been in
existence for most States for some ten years.
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There have been some encouraging developments and events 1n aw
South Wales, Including the very successful third National Conference
on Environmental Education held In Sydney In August, 1984. This
conference had the theme: "Urban Environmental Education* and brought
together, on the one platform, not only educators, but representatives
of Industry, trade unlcns, citizen groups, the media, government
departments, and various International speakers. The breadth of the
Conference proceedings was most encouraging and has made a significant
forward step for the environmental education movement In Australia to
break out of Its former somewhat blinkered view that E.E. was the
preserve of the formal education system.
VII. Murray, Cam. "Education and Leadership: The Role of
Non-ProfIt Societies". Past Chairman, Outdoor Recreation
Council of British Columbia, Suite lOn, 12OO Hornby Street,
Vancouver, British Columbia V6Z 2E2, Canada-
The Outdoor Recreation Council of B.C. Is a non-profit society,
formed In 1976. It provides a mechanism through which the Interests
and activities of orgarlzed groups 1n outdoor recreation, conservation
and education can be coordinated and represented to government and
Industry.
Currently, 42 provincial associations are members of the Council,
embracing motorized and non-motorized groups, land-and water-oriented
activities and conservation Interests. In addition, a number of
regional committees address concerns at a local level.
One aspect of the Council's activities has been to foster the safe
and wise use of the outdoors. This has been achieved In several
ways. Most notable has been the production and distribution of a
widely acclaimed series of safety and education brochures covering a
diversity of topics relating to the safe and wise use of the outdoors.
More than 856,000 brochures have been printed to date, and the
series continues to expand, its progress has been supported
throughout by the provincial government, and Its success can be judged
by the ongoing demand. In addition, a series of slide/tape packages
have been produced. Like the brochures, these are made available to
schools, outdoor centres, clubs and others to use as an educational
tool. Both are Intended to reach a wide "udlence among the recreation
public.
Since Its Inception, the Outdoor Recreation Council has encouraged
programs of safety education, technical instruction and outdoor
ethics. The Implementation of a leadership program remains an
unfulfilled dream, although a Wilderness Leadership Program has been
Initiated at Capllano College In North Vancouver, by several persons
closely ossoclated with the beginnings of the Council.
From the outset, vigorous debate has ensued around the topic of
"leadership" with proponents of a diversity of viewpoints - ranglnv,
irom a "certification" model, on one hand, to a "laissez-faire"
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acquisitions of leadership skills on a voluntary basis, on the other
hand, a debate continuing over the years.
In 1980, the Deputy Provincial Secretary for B,C, suggested that
Interest a;nong outdoor recreation organizations for a provincial scale
outdoor recreation leadership development ought to be gauged, and,
that If fufflclent Interest was evident, further efforts toward the
development of such a program should be stimulated. In 1981, the
Council assisted In distributing a questionnaire lo Individuals,
associations and educators. 170 responses were received as outlined
below:
Existing Programs
most groups require a "high" or "moderate" skill level of
their outdoor leaders.
the majority of groups set their own standards, about
one-third use standards set by other groups.
Weeds for Future Programs
an overwhelming majority felt that a leadership program,
encompassing social and environmental knowledge as well as
core skills, would be iseful.
respondents Indicated the following preferences for program
delivery:
First choice:
Short Courses
28%
Intensive 1-3 week course
21X
Certification program
16%
Second choice:
Short Courses
32X
Visiting groups of experts
24X
Self-directed module
18%
British Columbia does not yet have a provlncewlde program for
outdoor leaders, and the arguments for and against conservation
continue. In this context, It Is Interesting to note the solutions
reached In other parts of the world.
In Nova Scotia the result of a long study Into leadership was the
Implementation of the Nova Scotia Outdoor Leadership Development
Program (NSOLD). It Is designed to provide a basic leadership
train ng program, encompassing general outdoor recreation skills.
Certification was rejected as Inappropriate. The certificate gained
therefore evaluates efficiencies and deficiencies, rather than
providing a seal of approval. The NSOLD Basic Leadership Course
Includes five weekend modules (woodmanship, w'llderness ethics,
wilderness navigation, survival and emergency procedures), capped by a
nine-day Outdoor Leadership School. All modules are based on direct
experience.
New Zealand has also rejected certification. The New Zealand
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Outdoor Training Advisory Board places emphasis on ongoing self
assessment for leaders, and to this end has produced a detailed manual
to provide advice for leaders, instructors and course coordinators.
The Advisory Board recognizes three basic principles for outdoor
leadership training:
certification, while perhaps desUable for professional
guides and instructors, is inappropriate for the amateur
leader.
leadership training should be based on acquiring technical
competence, gaining experiences through practice and
developing leadership skills.
leadership training should be available at different skill
levels.
Leadership programs are offered to New Zealanders through a number
of organizations.
The Outdoor Recreation Council of B.C. is now looking at the
potential for leadership in British Columbia. Response to the survey
has indicated that a short course would be the most popular form of
delivery. However, program must cater to individual learning
prcferen as and woulci therefore ideally offer the course content in a
variety of forms: short courses, longer courses, videotape, manuals
etc. Nothing can replace the direct contact component, however, and
this should be par* '^f any model selected.
It is not the tounciVs intent to offer certification. Soi^e of
the Council's member groups do offer certification, particularly in
high-risk activities; however, this is not applicable to all forms of
recreation leadership. Rather, the Council would encourage
self-assessment, or p?t^r assessment, occuring on an ongoing basis.
The course component would focus on core skills: leadership
techniques, oi tdoors philosophy, human relations, safety
considerations and legal considerations « The development of specific
skills Is appropriately left to the associations.
A proporal will be put before the Outdoor Recreation Council of
B.C. to establish a Leeuership Training Advisory Board. This Board
would be responsible not only for developing core leadership courses,
but would also be in a position to enhance leadership training through
work-shops and other info; ...ation dissemination. In addition, the
Board would develop responses to leadership issues, such as those
raised by the questionnaire ^respondents.
VII L. Vallentyne, John R. "Giobes as Symbols of Oneness." Senior
Scientist, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada Centre
for Inland Waters, P.O. Box 5050, Burlington, Ontario, Canada
L7R 4A6.
Globes provide an opportunity to ^ee a model of the Earth at once
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as a whole In a manner that Is not possible cn maps or even In
photographs from space. Because of this they have Immense power In
shaping * .e way we see ourselves In relation to people In other
cultures and to The Biosphere. 4s hollow spheres, globes resemble The
Biosphere more than the solid Earth* Planar projections, no matter
how refined, are distort. ons.
In depicting the oneness of humanity and The Biosphere, globes may
be crucial to the success of The Vtorld Campaign for The Biosphere
(Anon., 1982 and Davis, 1983) » By providing a wordUss Image of The
Biosphere, they transcend the need for language and translation.
Furthermore, they are capable of stirring human thought and passion.
Consider, for example, the following:
a small globe held In one palm, to suggest that the fate of
The Biosphere Is In human hands;
a medlum^slzed globe cupped In two hands, to suggest the
preclousness of The Blospnere;
the fingers of one hand stretched over the surface of a
larger globe, to portray the environmental ravages of
humanity;
a globe swinging on a string like the pendulum of a
grandfather's clock to Indicate that time Is shortef/.ng, that
not to act Is to act;
carrying a globe on one's back as an expression of the bond
of feedback between person and planet;
a globe with a heart-beat, symbolizing The Biosphere as an
Independent living-breathing agent;
a globe with a slot for secret messages or contributions to
some worthy supranational cause. (One suc?i globe brought In
contributions of U.S. $:02 from attendees at the NAEE Banff
Conference to the Indian Society of Naturalists.)
a globe that magically lights up In response to hearing about
good ecological actions on Ihe part of chlldien;
looking jp tn a globe held high In one hand. Indicative of
respect;
a geophysical globe to show patterns of circulation of air
and water.
These are some of many ways In which globes can be used
Imaginatively to communicate Important messages and meta-messages
about our rel^t1on to ^he Biosphere.
Based on conversations with people from various countries my
Impression Is that In welUto-^do nations every primary school Is
likely to have at least one globe; every secondary school Is likely to
have several globes of assorted sizes and types. In underdeveloped
countries the rule 1s different. Every secondary school Is likely to
have a globe, but globes are generally lacking In primary schools.
Very little Imaginative use Is made of g obes In pr*«iary and secondary
schools. They mostly gather dust on shelves In classrooms or on top
of bookcases In libraries.
My Impression Is that there Is a certain "magic" In globes for
children In the age range of 5-10. It could be that there are windows
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1.^ the minds of elementary school children Into which Blospheric
messages can be inserted; and that after a certain age the windows are
s^ut tight and bolted. If true, particular attention should be given
to making possible and improving the use of globes in elementary
schools.
On the above information and conjectures, it seems to me that two
first and most essential educational objectives of The World Campaign
for Tho Biosphere should be: (1) to stimulate governments in all
countries to ensure that every elementary school has at least one
globe; and (2) to produce a small booklet available In many languages
outlining ways in which teachers at all levels might imaginatively use
globes to stimulate a Biospheric ethic. The cost of globes is not
excessive. The price in North America iinges form less tha;i $10 for a
30 cm inflatable globe to $100 for a beautiful 30 cm plastic
geophysical-political globe with an internal 25 watt Ught. Balloons
could be even cheaper Substitutes.
Attention Is now being given In many parts of the world to
implementing an ecosystem approach to living in which we see ourselves
as parts of larger systems, rather than as separate agents looking out
at external environments. To the extent that this attitude depends on
person-plant viewpoints,, it could be that governments and other
national or sub-national forms of organizations may be able to
advocate but not to implement an ecosystem approach; that only people,
individually, can do it. If that Is the case then environmental
education should begin from the top-down (Biosphere to person) as well
as bottom-up (person to Biosphere). Globes, as the flags of The
Biosphere, are essential in both respects.
References
1. Anonymous Declaration: The World Cair;:.ign for The Biosphere
Environmental Conservation, 9(2): 91-92, 1982,
2. Davis, C.B. "The World Council for The Biosphere/International
Society for Enviromental Education.* Environmental
Conservation . 10(4): 353-354, 1983.
VII. M. Yandala, Oeb. "The Church as an Example of Nonformal
Environmental Education." Director, Miami Valley Outdoor
Hinlstries, 3304 N. Main Street, Box 505, Dayton. Ohio.
45405, USA.
Every day people are faced with making decisions that in some way
effect the environment. Energy use, the food system, transportation
and other issues interface with the daily lives of citizens of this
world. With an increase in the complex relationship of technology and
natural systems comes the need for a greater understanding of the
environment. Environmental literacy is essential for all people and
not Just for those in positions of power.
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Many quality environmental education programs have been developed
in schools to help facilitate the awareness and skills of young people
to make informed decisions. Yet there are many still not reached with
invircinmental educatior. programs. While some people may choose to
atte.id programs at nature centers » museums, zoos, etc. or use the
medii to gain information* there Is a need to broaden our
perspectives, and therefore our offe-'lngs, so that more people might
become Informed. Agencl. not normally thought of as environmental
education resources may have the ability to each diverse audiences.
The church can be such an agency, providing environmental education in
a nonformal setting.
Ideally, environmental education can be a mixture of formal and
nonformal learning. This would allow for lifelong learning to develop
awareness and concern. Nonformal education provides the core of many
adutt educational systems around the world. Planners in a wide
variety of settings are coming to realize that an effective national
education system must be a mixture of in-school and out-of-school
educational processes. Nonformal education can be complementary,
supplementary or a replacement, depending on the situation.
With increased learner Involvement and motivation, such programs
can have long lasting effects. The opportunity to use innovative
learning styles, to provide experiential learning, and deal in the
area of beliefs and values can make nonformal education a valuable
tool for environmental education.
Churches generally put major emphasis on religious education.
They are dedicated to educati >n for youth and adults, to help share
faith and beliefs. Religioi;> education also often stresses giving
people tools for living as people of faith in the world. These tools
center around many lifestyle issues: health, peace, Justice, food,
^amily concerns. Interpersonal relationships, etc. Educational
programs attract youth and adults, both separately and together for a
variety of learning experi<^nces . True to the definition cf nonformal
education, learners (other than young people In traditional "Sunday
School" learning programs or specific training programs) have choice
over their topics, but churches, either through teachers or published
curriculum, provide the "hows" and content in their instruction.
Hany church programs already touch on environmental education. A
recent study showed that environmentally-related issues receiving the
most attention through church educational programs are world hunger,
lifestyles, land stewardship, conservation of energy, and
environmental ethics. Use of the printed word Is the most popular
form of addressinc these issues (Yapole, 1983). Because the church
works with a variety of people, many people may not choose to be
exposed to environmental e^jucation in other settings. For this reason
alone, churches need to consider their role in preserving the earth.
Environmental education professionals and religious educators agree
that churches need to be in the business of environmental education.
In a recent survey, 99. IX of the church officers polled and 99. IX of
the National Association for Envirom-mntal Education members polled
strongly agreed or agreed with the statement "Part of the mission of
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the church should Include a concern for the teaching of environmental
responsibilities" (Yaple, 1983).
Churches » both on a local and a national levels can provide a
healthy arena for dealing with the affective part of environmental
Issues. Values* beliefs, and attitudes can be safely discussed In
churches » partly because of the expectation that religious education
will Indeed deal with the affective domain* While knowledge about the
environment may be presented, the opportunity to carefully look at
lifestyle questions, global Issues, community Involvement, and
personal decision making through values education and studies rooted
In faith Issues, makes the church a valuable educational setting.
Another major contribution the church can make Is to provide
reinforcement for what Is being learned In other settings. Especially
for young people. If that which Is presented In schools Is reinforced
In other places, education can become more deeply rooted and provide
greater potential for change. Churches and other community based
agencies can reaffirm knowledge and content areas In addition to
stressing the affective domain.
Environmental education also has certain principles and
characteristics which overlap with the purposes of religious
education. E.P. Hart applied a criteria or Importance of key
environmental education characteristics In environmental education
literature. He found among the ones mentioned most often were:
Interdisciplinary, multilevel, global ethics, concepts, process
development, problem solving, values clarifying, systems thinking,
first hand experiences and activities (Hart, 1981). Many of these can
also be found In religious education. For example, it Is definitely
multl-le^el and Includes both concepts and process development.
Global ethics are Important to many denominations who take world
mlsslc* and outreach seriously. Problem solving and first hand
experiences are reflected in a service orientation. Where some of
these characteristics are not present, perhaps religious educators
might gain from environmental education, especially with Its
experimental approach.
The theory of humanistic education has strong ties with religious
education. Differing from secular humanism, humanistic education
emphasizes values, beliefs, attitudes and the affective domain In
suggesting styles of teaching and learning. The overriding concern Oi
attitude formulation Is Important to both humanistic education and
environmental education. John Miles suggested that there Is a need to
recognize the role of humanistic education In environmental
education. Consider Miles' definition of a humanistic person: "...a
humanistic person Is one who Is empathetic, who seeks to understand
other people's feelings and Ideas and Is able to do so. Such a person
Is also compassionate, sensing the needs of othe^^ and responding to
them with support and assistance" (Miles, 1979, p. 177). Religious
educators strive to help develop values based on religious principles
which are humanistic, according to this definition. Environmental
educators need such people so that there are citizens and
decision-makers who are concerned about the welfare of all humanity.
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The long range goals of both religious education and environmental
education includes an emphasis on improving life on earth. They also
both are "causes* in that followers are convinced of the "rightness*
of what they believe and are eagur to share it. Both are spiritual in
the depth and morality of what is being tauQfit. Perhaps Oames Swan
says it best; "Ultimately, living In harmony with nature is an
energetic phenomenon which involves a harmonious attuning of human
life, body, mind a^^d spirit with nature. A holistic view of human
nature requires that the spiritual nature of humankind be considered
as wen as the material aspects" (Swan, 1978, p. 47). The
"other-centeredness" of religious education and environmental
education along with the concern for that which is not human-made,
lend to a spiritual sense of the work that both are about.
Once religious educators accept a rationale for their Involveraent
in environmental education, be It for ethical, theological » or
educational reasons, then the potential for types of involvement can
be realized. Perhaps the most obvious place for inclusion is at
church camps. Camps provide a place where people can come into direct
contact with the earth because nature study and outdoor living are
usually parts of most camp programs. Be it through the camp's
curriculum, through special programs, or interest sessions,
environmental education can be effectively shared in the outdoor
setting. Perhaps even more exciting in terms of education potential
is the opportunity for camps to model environmental concern, through
their buildings, food service, resource use and the commitment of the
staff. Camps provide a good opportunity for people with experience
life-styles that are compatible with the environment and sensitive to
global needs.
Environmental education can be Incorporated into the ongoing
educational programs of the local congregation. Sunday school,
vacation church school, youth programs, adult education and special
programs may deal with environmental issues and ethics. Service
projects, such as recycling, gardening, and picking up litter can
reflect environmental concern. Such a simple thing as recycling
church bulletins can provide a witness to members and to the
community. Congregations can use their own theology and practices to
be models to the community of commitment to the earth.
The church buildings, congregational meals, educational programs,
worship and special events can all serve to involve people in
environmental concern and reinforce within them the importance of
caring for the earth. The church can effectively provide people with
motivation and tools for changing behavior and lifestyles in order to
preserve the environment.
Environmental educators can gain greater effectiveness in their
mission as they seek to work with nonformal agencies, especially those
who are not normally aligned with this field. Religious educators can
broaden the perspectives of their programs by taking advantage of the
resources environmental education can bring for their purposes in
training people to live responsible lives. The mutuality of a joint
sense of mission in caring for the earth can lead to reaching and
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effecting more people with a message that Is Important for the future
of people and the earth.
References
K Cesaretti, C.A. and Conwlns, Stephen, editors. "Let the Earth
Bless the Lord." B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids.
Michigan* 1980.
2. Hart, E.P. "Identification of Key Characteristics of
Environmental Education." The Journal of Environmental Education ,
1981, 13(1), 12-16.
3. Miles, John Charles. "Experimental Humanistic Environmental
Education: A Description and Rationale." Doctoral dissertation.
Union Graduate School, June 1979.
4. Mocker, Donald W. and Spear, George E. "Lifelong Learning:
Formal, Nonformal, Informal, and Self -Directed." National
Institute of Education, Washington, D.C., 1982.
5. Swan, James A. "Environmental Education: A New Religion?" The
Journal of Environmental Education , 1978, 10(1), 44-48.
6. Wilkinson, Lor^^n, editor. "Earthkeeplng. " William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1980.
7. Yaple, Charles H. "The Christian Church and Environmental
Education: A Study of Involvements In the United States."
Dissertation abstract presented at the NAEE Conference, October,
1983.
VII. N. Yandala, Deb. "Values and Environmental Education: A
Workshop Modol for Training Teachers and Leaders." Director,
Miami Valley Outdoor Ministries, 736 Walton Ave, Dayton,
Ohio, 45407, USA.
The goals of environmental education emphasize awareness,
knowledge, concern, and motivation which lead to working for solutions
and prevention of environmental problems. In seeking to eMcIt
concern for the environment, one must take Into consideration deeply
rooted values and how they effect decision-making and
problem-solving. A basic understanding of the value process and
specific valuing strategies can be beneficial to teachers and leaders
1n designing environmental education experiences. Training In values
education can also help teachers and leaders be clear on personal
values and encourage personal development, particularly In relation to
environmental concerns.
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Values are enduring beliefs which are prized and considered to be
of prime importance to an individual. When a value is activated,
certain actions or behaviors reflect the value. Each Individual has
his or her own value system, which Is an enduring organization of
beliefs. This system helps i!id1v1dua1s make decisions, solve
conflicts, and make choices. While a value system Is relatively
stable over time, change occurs when there is a reordering of
priorities. New Information or experiences can produce conflict which
leads to clarification or reprlorltlzing, both of which are valuable
in an individual's development*
There are numerous ways to work with values In an educational
setting. How a teacher or leader chooses to work with values is
dependent uptn goals, atmosphere, the nature of the group, and
specific topics in a given situation* By combining the use of various
strategies, the strength of each can be used to complement one
another. Strategies used most often with envlroranental education
include lalssez faire, inculcation, values analysis^ action learning,
behavior modification, values clarification, and moral development*
Both moral development and values clarification are worthy of In depth
study by environme'.ital educators ecause of their significance to the
field. They are given special €.i4>has1s In the workshop model.
The workshop model Is designed to be a one and one-half to two and
one-^half day experience for teachers and leaders wanting to develop
skills in values education, to examine their own values, and make
applications to environmental education. Suggestions are given for
those conducting the workshop as well as specific explanations of each
part of the model. The model Includes valuing activities,
mini-presentations on valuing theories and strategies, and group
discussions on the application of values education. Guidelines for
handling values, follow-^up possibilities and evaluation are also
elements of the model.
It takes both skill and sensitivity to handle values in a way that
is helpful to people. Understanding how one might best approach
values in a variety of situations requires a knowledge of valuing
strategies and theories on how to apply them. The workshop model is
designed to give both content and process suggestions to enable people
wanting to incorporate values education into environmental education
experiences to do so more effectively.
VII. 0. PANEL: "Cultural Resource Management and the Environmental
Historian". PANEL MODERATOR: Carroll Pursell, University of
California. PANELISTS: Samuel P. Hays, University of
Pittsburgh; Martin V. Melosi, University of Houston; Thomas
Ounlao, The Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University.
Environmental historians, it is frequently charged, have devoted
far too much attention to parks, wilderness, and wildlife, and not
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enough to the relationship between the built and natural environment,
ihls panel explored the Issue, as well as the responsibility of
historians to help protect historic structures and aboriginal sites.
The need for cooperation between historians and developers was
addressed.
VII. P. PANEL: "Environmental History In the Science Curriculum".
PANEL MODERATOR: John H. Perkins, Academic Dean, Evergreen
State College, Olyrapla, Washington 98505, USA. PANELISTS:
Thomas Dunlap, The Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University; Samuel P. Hays, University of Pittsburgh; Joseph
Slry, Sonoma State University; Alfred Runte, University of
Washington.
How can scientists benefit from a more In-depth understanding of
the origin and evolution of environmental Issues? What does the
environmental historian have to offer the scientist, especially those
1n the natural resource professions? Indeed, do scientists have a
responsibility to teach the historical origins of natural resource
debates affecting their respective professions? These and similar
Issues was the thrust of this panel.
VII. Q. PANEL: "Issues and Interpretations In Environmental
History". PANEL MODERATOR: Alfred Runte, Professor,
Department of History, 0P-20, University of Washington,
Seattle, Washington 98195, USA. PANELISTS: John Opie,
Ousquene University; Donald Worster, Brandels University;
Linda a. Lear, The George Washington University; Carrol
Pursell, University of California, Santa Barbara; Morgan
Sherwood, University of California, Davis.
Environmental history can be and often Is controversial since the
field addresses such emotional Issues as whether corporations art
Irresponsibly toward the environment. This panel addresses the need
for care and deliberation In researching such debates, debates whose
current context often obscures the search for historical accuracy.
VII. R. PANEL: "The Past, Present and Future of Environmental
History". PANEL MODERATOR: Morgan Sherwood, University of
California, Davis. PANELISTS: 0, Donald Highes, University
of Denver; Martin V. Melosi, University of Houston; Lisa
Mighetto, University of Washington; Donald Worster, Brandels
University; Alfred Runte.
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Enylronmental history emerged during the early 1970s with great
fanfare. Why and how did this happen? What did the field accomplish;
what did It Ignore or fall to address adequately? Does environmental
history have a future In the 1980s and beyond? What are the
responsibilities of environmental historians toward their students and
their field?
VIIK A. Gell, Mike; Edward Pizzlnl; James Splvak. "Simulating
Competitive and Collaborative Models for Decision Making".
Coordinator, Environmental Field Programs, Summer Science
Training Program, 465 VAN. University of Iowa, Iowa City,
Iowa 52242, USA.
Simulations can be a powerful and effective teaching aid for
examining ethical Issues and lllufnlnatlng the s^cllls and Interpersonal
relations Involved In group dec1s1on*mak1ng. Environmental Issues
often Involve conflicts between various groups. Such conflicts may
encompass differences with regrrd to economic, pcl1*:1cal, social,
religious, and cultural Ideologies. Arriving at suitable and
acceptable courses of action Is often extremely difficult In light of
these conflicts. Individuals with widely diverse Ideologies and
concerns must be able to communicate effectively and work together
during the decision-making process.
This workshop allowed participants to become artWely Involved In
a simulation designed to Illustrate aspects of both competitive and
coHaboratlve models for declslon-^maklng. These models were examined
within the context of both Intragroup and Intergroup dynamics. The
Importance of the Individual's perceived role for themselves and for
their relation to a group or groups, becomes clear through the course
of the simulation. Aspects of group dynamics and human nature are
vividly illustrated.
Simulations may be used successfully by environmental educators 1n
a wide variety of settings. Including high schools,
colleges/universities, national pork programs, field studies programs,
etc.. The simulation used in this session as well as other
simulations, also to be examined, have been used by the presenters in
environmental education courser at the University of Iowa, in
environmental field study courses, at National Wildlife Summits, and
^n high school classrooms.
Ideas and hints for effectively managing and developing
simulations also were discussec^. Participants were provided with
several additional simulations dealing with environmental Issues.
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226
VIII. B. Henning, Daniel H. "The Role and Neglect of In-Service
Environmental Training Progrd«»s In International
Environmental Education". Professor of Political Science and
Environmental Affairs. Eastern Montana ColUge, Bmings,
Montana 59101, USA.
In-service training programs are basically centered upon the
participant within his governmental setting, ihey provide one of the
most effective, economical and practical ways of reaching large
numbers of government personnel who will be making decisions relating
to the World Conservation Strategy (HCS) over the next few years (lUCN
1960). Yet International environmental education has given relatively
little recognition and support to this Approach.
It Is safe to say that much of the success or failure of the WCS
win depend on government decision-makers and their exposure to
environmental values and considerations. Or. David Munro, past
Director General, International Union for the Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources "N) has stated, "Although they would be
harder to Influence, a ^at deal could be accomplished by
facilitating environmental training programmes which reached officials
In the middle and senior ranks. With 10, 15 or more years of
experience, these Individuals will be making the key decisions for the
present and Immediate future." (Personal Interviews with Dr. Munro
1979). Personnel of this nature will be making the major decisions In
environmental developmental affairs for the present and Immediate
future.
It Is recognized that many government officials have
techno-sclentif 1c specializations and backgrounds e.g., engineering,
forestry, etc. Through a procecs of upward mobility, many specialized
personnel find themselves In administrative or generallst positions
while those advancing in the specialist classifications find
themselves making more and more value judgements and human/societal
decisions In their various activities. Through their educational
backgrounds and training programmes, both categories of personnel may
lack sufficient exposure to environmental values and considerations
for 1ncorpor*»t1on into their actual decision-making relative to the
WCS.
A major point of the WCS 1s that various values and alternatives,
particularly environmentally sound ones, should be examined and
analyzed on a long-range basis In the decision-making process by
public officials (lUCN, 1980). A pragmatic and technique orientation
1n training often places emphasis on short-range and expedient
approaches to problem-solving and declslon-maklng; consequently,
little attention will be devoted to long-range and In-depth value
considerations and related alternatives. As a result, such training
ccntrlbutes little to attaining a comprehensive. Internalized
perspective which would Include exposure to, and analysis of,
environmental values and considerations. Th!s would be essential for
the Implementation of the WCS.
It can certainly oe recognized that the Immediate needs and
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specific Interests, Including techno«sc1ent1f1c concerns, of
government personnel require In-service training attention.
Supplemental courses o^ Integrative dimensions that are of a broad and
general nature are also needed. They wouH provide perspectives,
synthesis and overall analysis of values » considerations and
relationships In terms of the environment, society and development.
The adage of not being able to "see the forest because of the trees"
Is certainly applicable here.
Ulth the complex and long-range problems associated with the WCS,
there appears to be a definite need for general training In
environmental administration to provide an overview. Host government
personnel are Involved In managing the relationship between society
I.e., people, and the environment rather than managing the environment
or living resources per se. This former area Is usually where the
problems and decisions occur, creating a need for an envlroftmental
administrative framework. Training In environmental administration.
In this sense, could also contribute to better utilization of the
social sciences In Interdisciplinary approaches.
Training programmes have a special responsibility to educate
public officials about value considerations so that their public
participation activities, judgements and decision-making can be more
effectively employed to determine the long-term, public Interest for a
given environmental araa or living resource. However, public
participation cannot be effective, let alone encouraged, unless It has
a clear orientation toward value considerations In the administrative
process. Comprehensive training for government personnel calls for
considerations that deal with perspectives, awareness, knowledge and
Incorporation of values Into public participation and actual
administration.
The lUCN Commission on Education, UNESCO, UNEP, FAO, UNOP, and
other International organizations have large and challenging
responsibilities for stimulating and assisting environmental education
activities. Including training, under the WCS.
However, environmental education must recognize that personnel In
environmental and developf ental affairs will be making the Important
decisions for the present and Immediate future of living resources and
society. It wouUi appear appropriate that more emphasis be given to
In-service environmental training activities In this vital sphere;
furthermore, there Is relatively little researched or published In the
the area of environmental training of governmental personnel.
Adequate attention needs to be devoted to research In this field
for more effective training programmes, along with strong emphasis on
Implementation of In-service training courses and workshops on a
worldwide basis. Environmental education and global environmental
problems cannot afford further neglect through lack of training.
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228
References
1. INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND NATURAL
RESOURCES (lUCN). World Conservation Strategy. Gland.
Switzerland; lUCN, 1980.
2. MUNRO, Or. D., Past Director General, lUCN. Personal Interview,
Merges, Switzerland, August, 1979.
VIII. C. Horvat, Robert E. "Energy Education: Past or Prologue?"
Associate Professor of Geosclence, Phys*cs and
Interdisciplinary Sciences, State University of New York,
College at Buffalo, 1300 Elnwood Avenue, Buffalo, New York
14222, USA.
Introduction
The Arab Oil Embargo of 1973-74 was the first dramatic sign ot
U.S. reliance on In^jorted oil to fuel our economy, in the years that
followed, concern for energy and related environmental Issues spurred
the development of energy education programs.
Now, ten years later, the general public seems to think our
nation's energy problems are over. Gas lines and station closings are
vague memories, and In^orted oil has declined somewhat In price.
Energy education has lost the national spotlight. But our energy
problems are still here, like a sleeping vampire waiting for night.
Effective energy education Is still needed, even at the
elementary/Junior high levels.
Unfortunately, most teachers of elementar" grades, and many
science teachers at the middle/Junior high levels have had little
background In energy. The need for effective energy education
workshops for our nation's inservlce teachers continues. One model
for these workshops, the Buffalo State program. Is the focus of this
paper.
Workshop Objectives
With a variety of sponsors, Buffalo State has offered Intensive
ten day workshops (over three weeks) for elementary and Junior high
teachers with little or no background in energy education. In
general, each program had these goals:
1. - to accurately and objectively convay factual knowledge about
the multlfacted dimensions of current U.S. energy problems.
This Includes the laws of energy, energy conversions,
efficiency/conservation, and current and future energy
options .
2. - to Introduce teachers to the vast amount of existing
currlcular units, films, and ether teaching resources on
energy topics at the elementary and Junior high school levels
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(pre-K tO grade 9), Including materUU available from
various states, and local utilities (2).
3. - to demonstrate how energy education may (and must) be Infused
Into current classroom subjects.
4. - to discuss classroom and field energy activities appropriate
for children.
5. to develop energy currlcular units by workshop participants,
and to disseminate the best of these units to other school
districts.
Format
30 or 40 teachers are selected each sunnier to attend the
workshops. The teachers represent a wide variety of schools/districts
In western New York, and northwestern Pennsylvania. Host of the
teachers commuted dally, although Inexpensive dorms or other housing
was occasionally used for teachers living too far to commute. The
teachers received three graduate science credits upon successfully
completing the program. They also received a large amount of
currlcular materials, and generally got quite energized.
The mornings were generally devoted to lectures, guast speakers,
and discussions, while afternoons featured hands-on activities. The
1984 program offered separate afternoon sessions for elementary and
Junior high teachers. An Energy Film Festival was conducted during
part of the lunch hour, and after the formal afternoon sessions
ended. Each teacher could choose the films he/she wanted to see, and
evaluate for classroom use. All of the films were available to
teachers free of charge, from our State Energy office, local
utilities, or film libraries.
Field trips were an Important part of each year's program. Among
the various sites we have used Is the hydroelectric facility at
Niagara Falls, which Illustrated the many benefits of hydroelectric
power. A wind turbine atop a local publishing company helped to show
that alternative energy facilities are becoming more common. A
passive solar/energy-conserving home, dramatically Illustrated how
much energy can be saved when proper construction and pre-planning Is
done before the house Is built. A coal-fired power plant showed how
tne most common fossil fuel Is used to make electricity.
Four Instructors had primary Instructional responsibilities In the
workshops. A geologist, home economist, and elementary science
educator joined me In presenting content and activities appropriate
for use with young children. Guest speakers Included representatives
from local electric and gas utilities, and the American Petroleum
Institute, Washington. Several assembly-type programs on energy
(available for school use) were also presented. One day of the
Workshop was devoted to the New York Energy Education Project being
developed at the State Education Department.
In addition to guest speakers associated with energy Industry, the
Workshops also featured a local Industrial arts high school teacher
who directs a large number of energy-related projects with his
students, winning national recognition; a local earth sciences teacher
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who had his students construct and maintain a passive solar greenhouse
at their high school; and a representative of the State Public Service
Commission who discussed the utility rate-se'cting process.
Content
In terras of content, our workshop stressed ei-ergy basics, a
ganerai overview of energy options, and energy conservation . The
course Instructors felt these were the most appropriate mix of topics
for tea^, rs of children below the high school level. In terms of
developing these topics for classroom units. The following topics
were Included:
The Historical Roots of Energy Problems
Energy Basics (thermodynamics, efficiency/
Overview of Energy Options
Fossil Fuels
Energy Conservation
Renewable Energy Sources
Nuclear Power (fission, fusion)
Economics and Energy Options
Energy Education Curricula and Resources
In addition to the numerous films Included 1n our Film Festival,
three films deserve mention. Swain Wolf has produced a very
philosophical film which relates energy U5t t*> our society, called
Energy and Morality", used to close each workshop. "Lovlns on The
Soft Path" features Amory and Lonter Lovlns discussing renewable,
generally communlty-baseci en*' ^y production matched to the final use
for the energy. Also, a videotape by Or. Albert Bartlett, titled
Forgotten Fundamentals of the Energy Crisis" (5) explains how
exponential growth In the use of any resource (suih as coal) will
dramatically shorten the time we'll be able to use the resource.
Evaluation
Several evaluations of each workshop were conducted. The first was
conducted near the program's mid-point, which allowed us to modify any
Items causing confusion or consternation before the worKihop
concluded, ihe final evaluation, at the end of the last week, was
strongly positive In each suwner program. The teachers reported that
they had achieved their main objectives; to obtain Information to use
In teaching or energy education projects and to Increase their own
energy content background. The teachers said they had gotten a lot of
good Ideas and materials, and enjoyed the Instructors and guest
speakers, whom they all ranked as good to excellent.
Before and after the Workshop, the participants In the 1983 ano
1984 programs completed the Young Adult Assessment of Energ y developed
by the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP). About half
of the 1983 groups also completed the NAEP survey again six months
after the Workshop: ? longitudinal assessment of any Immediate changes
in energy knowledge and attitudes. In general, there were
statistically significant gains in teachers' knowledge of energy facts
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and Issues, belief In the effectiveness of persona^ action, and
feelings toward the seriousness of the energy problem/energy
tradeoffs* Teachers completing the six month followup survey showed
no decline In their observed post-Workshop gains (6)
Future Funding for Energy Education Workshops
Beginning In 1979, Buffalo State has host-^d five suimer workshops
In energy education, for teachers of various pre-college grade
levels. After all Federal funding for these type of programs was
cancelled In 1982, the Workshop instructional staff decided to try and
continue the program-*at considerably reduced fund1ng-->by soliciting
support of local electric and gas ut111t1es--tfur1ng 1983 anJ 1984.
The Interest In energy education In westevn New York, as evidenced by
over>subscr1pt1on of available seats In the summer workshops, has
prompted the utilities to continue their current substantial support
for 19B5,
Buffalo State's experience In finding new sources of funding,
while maintaining academic Integrity for these Workshops can be
repeated at colleges In other regions, I believe. Your local electric
and gas utilities already have In place some type cf educational
program for schools. They will have a specific staff member (called a
Consumer Education Specialist, D^'^ector of Consumer E^Jucatlon or
something equivalent) who Is responsible for energy education. By
contacting that person, and discussing your plans, and resources, you
may find that government funding Is not necessary for successful
energy education programs.
Acknowledgements
The programs described In this paper were supported by the U.S.
Department of Energy, New York State Electric and 6as Corporation,
Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation, the New York Power Authority and
National F'jel Gas Distribution Corporation.
References
1. Horvat, Robert E. "Back tc Bc-^lcs: The ABCs of Energy." National
Association of Secondary Schotl Principals Bulletin, 1978,
62(419), 1-7.
2. Laspesa, Sally. "The Effects of an Energy Education Worksnop oi;
.vchool Teachers' Energy Knowledge and Attitudes." Masters
project. State College at BuffalD, 1984.
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VIII. 0. Hudspeth, Thomas R. "Utopia V1slon1ng and the Creation of
Alternative Futures". Assistant Director, Environment
Program, University of Vermont, 153 S. Prospect, Burlington,
Vermont 05405
The senior seminar in Environmental Studies at the University of
Vermont— the culminating course for all self -designed majors and
coordinate majors In Environmental Studies— seeks to motivate students
to make a difference, to think globally and ^ct locally, by
emphasizing Utopian visloning and the creation of alternative futures.
The course first seeks to help students consprehend and make sense
of the enormous changes which are occurring in the world today and to
clarify the nature of "the environmental problems* In our global
society. It then reviews the uioplan visions of a variety of
Individuals, families, communities, and social grc»u!)s through time,
focusing on Utopian models that are environmentally sensitive and
steady-state In nature. Students then gain experleijce in "creating
alternative futures," or collectively d^y-dreamlng about their desires
In c number of areas for the future. Social and environmental change
strategies are then considered that en^ower the students to work
backwards from their desired futures to the present and to begin to
affect positive changes towards their ultimate goals.
VIII. E. Hunwick, John. "Training Pre-Servlce Teachers in
Environmental Education - A South Australian Approach."
Lecture- In Curriculum Studies: Environmental Education,
S.A. College of Advanced Education, FAculty of Health,
Science and Education, Sturt Road, Bedford Park 5042, South
Australia.
What Is Environmental Education ?
To appreciate what Is (and Is NOT) happening in teacher education
In relation to environmental education. It Is flr^t necessary to
define what 1t Is.
The author's understanding of Environmental education Is based on
the 1970 lUCN definition and Its development at the Belgrade and
Tbilisi meetings. Out of this has come the following significant
features which serve as the basis for Identifying Environmental
Education:
1. recognition and comprehension of the Inter-relatedness of the
Individual, society, And the biophysical environment.
2. a priority for developing values and attitudes as well as for
learning the more customary conceptual knowledge.
3. the del'.berate attempt to develop the skills necessary for
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Identifying, Invest'-gating and resolving environmental problems
4. the training In and application of citizenship action skills.
Accordingly, Environmental Education Is considerably more than a
revamped ecology course or some type of outdoor education subject.
Environmental Education and the S.A> Schjol System
In South Australia the Initiative for the Introduction of
Environmental Education Into schools has been taken by the S.A.
Education Department. This has been done through Its policy document
■Our School and Their Purposes* (O.S.T.P.) 1n which eight curriculum
areas have been Identified as forming the framework for planning and
organising learning experiences. They are:
1. environmental education
2. health and personal development
3. human society
4. language studies
5. mathematical studies
6. science and technology
7. the arts
8. transition education
It Is yet to be determined what role "environmental education"
will havo In the overall framework. It could, more appropriately for
this list, change Into "environmental studies", and focus only on the
blosphyslcal relationships with the other curriculum areas; or U
could serve to draw attention to the Inter-relatlonshlps existing
between the Indlvluual, society and the biophysical environment as the
use of the term Environmental Education <«ssim^s.
The official Interpretation yet to be? pUced on the title
"Environmental Education" as part of the curriculum framework,
however, will not obvlat: the need for Its expression In schools (and
teachers). This Is made necessary. If not overtly recognized by the
Department, In the four areas Identified as having prior' cy In
schools. They are:
1. literacy * numeracy
2. communication
3. skills for social living
4. problem solving ';k111s
Separate document laborating on three of these priorities have
been produced, namel> Literacy and Numeracy, Communication, and
Problem-Solving Skills. The difficulties encountered with defining
the Skills for SccUl Living suggest It will be some time before a
widely accepted statement Is produced. In the meantime, the
significant features of Environmental Education are supported and are
to be given priority ^ In determining the school curriculum.
For "Problem-Solving Skills", O.S.^.p. states that
" It cannot be emphasized too strongly that learning Is an active
process. People learn by doing, whether the doing Is hammering a
nail, writing a lyric or programming a computer. Learner's need to be
able to see the point of what they are learning and need to be able to
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apply their developing skills, attltudas and knowledge to real
situations ab much as possible."
In outlining the "Skills for Social Living", the document
Indicates that
"A more generalised social awareness also needs to be developed,
so that rational consideration of environmental Issues or economic
forces In our society Is possible. Adjustment to social changes
caused by developing technologies such as computers will be assisted
If there Is some understanding of the relationship between
technological and social change... The point here Is that schools need
to give high priority to the whole area of preparation for effective
participation In society.
Preparing for Teaching Environmental Education
For each of the features of Envlrownental Education the S.A.C.A.E.
(Sturt) hac something I.t its pre-servlce programme that supports It.
In developing a greater awareness and compreh nslon of the
Interrelatedness of the Individual society and the Diophyslcal
environment, three compulsory general studies units are significant.
They are:
The Australian Identity
Science Technology and Values
and Power and Decision-Making
In addition, students who elect to undertake studies In the
Science and Environment strand are required to take the units.
The South Australian Environment
and You and Your Environment
Such students, along with students majoring In Health, can also
elect the tnvlrcnssental Health unit.
All the afore-mentioned units Include an emphasis on developing
appropriate values and attitudes. This occurs particularly In
Science, Technology and Values, and also In the required Curriculum
Studies uiilt: Sciences. This unit presently combines the stu'ly of
three S.A. curricula: Science, Social Studies and Religion Studies.
It stresses what these curricula areas have In common by focussing on
their teaching strategies, particularly those related to Investigation
or problem-solving. This Is reinforced by the students preparing to
teach a small unit of work In the schools, based on a theme for which
the opportunities to Integrate the three curriculum areas, and others,
are explicitly nade.
In addition, the Curriculum Studies: Science unit, by Its
Integration, Introduces the notion that curriculum areas can be
defined In terms of their Intentions, and accordingly demonstrate how
much they have In common and reinforce each other. This Is frequently
obscured when the curriculum focus Is largely or content, and not so
much on their concepts, processes, skills and values.
At present, the opportunities for students to apply social action
skills to real situations does not occur as a required component In
study units that they must take. For example, does not occur In
some of the workshops associated with the required unit Science
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Technology and Values, but such workshops are optional choices from a
range of offerings.
On the other hand, social action Is a required cofi?>onent of the
Environmental Health unit, but that Is only an optional unit for
Science or Health majors*
Finally, just before completing their Bachelor of Education,
itudents can opt for an Environmental Education unit. In which the
following topics are dealt with:
1. defining anci understanding the nature of environmental
education*
2. reinforcing the definition of curriculum areas In terras of
their concepts, processes, skills and values, and not so much
In terms of content.
3. practice In developing themes for teaching that satisfy
a. the goals of Environmental Education
b. departmental policy
c. curriculum requirements.
4. preparation of a year's teaching programme that Included
Environmental Education, and how to monitor It
5. developing and applying a framework for Environmental Education
In the classroom, based on activities and the Cort Thinking Kit.
F. Hurry, Lynn B. "Environmental Education and Primary School
Teacher Education: Meeting the Challenge of Inescapable
Issues". Environmental Education writer/ -esearcher, P.O. Box
458, Mool River 3300, Republic of South Africa.
The purpose of this paper Is to share Ideas on primary school
teacher education.
South Africa Is the most Industrially and commercially developed
nation 1n Africa and as a result has many large and densely populated
urban complexes. There are also large densely populated rural areas
where subsistence land-use practices persist. As a result man-Induced
environmental degradation In So^th Africa Is evident at both ends of
the spectrum. There are types of degratlon typical of Industrial
consumer nations (e.g. In URBAN AREAS overcrowding pollution, high
crime rates) together with degradation typical of the rural poor In
underdeveloped countries (e.g. In RURAL AREAS Impoverished soils,
energy shortages, high Incidence of disease). Furthermore as the
human population of South Africa Is growing at a rate of between 2 and
2% annum, there Is a concomitant Increase In the rate of environmental
degradation.
Whereas environmental change and some environmental degradation Is
Inevitable both In the urban environment as well as In the rural
environment, much environmental degradation Is avoidable
(CSP:CSIC:1983). There are TWO means available to counteract
excessive environmental degradation. These are law enforcement and
education. In countries with good records of environmental standards
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the latter usually complements the former. In countries where
environmental education Is weak or Ineffective, environmental law
enforcement Is also weak and Ineffective.
Environmental education (EE) need not be a formal process. Indeed
In most cases It Is not. However, there appears to be general
consensus In South Afi-lca that formal education processes have great
potential for Improving environmental awartness. There Is a growing
demand for compulsory formal education In South Africa and many
educationalists see our best hope for Improving envlromjental
awareness In the formal education process. (Hurry, 1980 and 1982;
Irwin, 1982).
South Africa shares with other African ?;tates the challenges of a
multi-cultural society with a large range of cultural values,
environmental perceptions and levels of (formal) education. This
calls for a highly flexible educational system which recognises on the
one hand the needs of groups, while on the other maintains global
perspectives on the nation as a whole.
Research In South Africa strongly suggests that school teachers
are frequently uninterested In or uninformed about, environmental
matters (Hurry, 1978; Irwin, 1982). Although teacher education
programmes may deal with aspects of environmental education (EE), It
Is generally poorly dealt with. According to Irwin (1982) teachers In
South Africa who are environmentally aware and who Include EE In their
teaching programmes are 'Invar'iably self-taught In this respect'.
There Is a need to Improve the environmental education conqponent
of teacher education programmes In South Africa. All teachers should
receive Information and Instruction In envlronrental education as an
integral part of tb,'i. training.
THE SOUTH AFRICAN EDUCATIONAL MILIEU
In order to better understand the discussion contained In this
paper a few notes on the South African educational milieu are
necessary:
a. At present compulsory education only applies to certain
sections of the South African community. There 1s Increasing
pressure being brought to bear for compulsory school attendance
until the 7th Grade.
b. About 70X of children presently In school are In the 7th grade
or lower.
c. School Syllabuses In both the Junior and the senior phases are
controlled from central "core syllabus" committees.
d. Colleges of Education may develop their own teacher-training
progranmes, but these are controlled In the final analysis
either by a university or by an education department.
From the above the following points are significant:
. The large majority of children (over 70%) presently In school
are In the primary phase.
. To a large extent It may be expected that the same grade levels
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throughout the country are following the same school subject
syllabuses.
. Teacher education programmes are similar to each other since
they all have to cater for the teaching of "common-core
syllabuses.
This paper Is based on the universally accepted premise that
environmental education (EE) Is the responsibility of all school
teachers, regardless of their areas of specialization.
The prime goal of all EE programmes Is given as the training; of
environmentally literate people, where environmental literacy Involves
the development of envlrofimental know'udge and concepts, healthy
environmental attitudes, and patterns of behaviour which reflect a
concern for the health of the total environment.
With regard to teacher education the goal of environmental
education Is to produce environmentally literate teachers who have the-
knowledge and attitudes necessary to be effective environmental
educators.
This paper discusses a theoretical model for pre-servlce primary
school teacher education and gives examples of effective environmental
education programmes In South African training Institutions.
The theoretical model has two components. On the one hand trainee
teachers should be encouraged to become environmentally literate,
while on the other they need to be trained In the didactics of
effective environmental education. The former training Is refi rred to
"learnlng-and responding", while the latter Is referred to as che
"didactics of environmental education".
In South Africa there Is central control of the contents of school
syllabi from c'^de 5 to grade 12, through the Joint Matriculation
Board. All education departments base their subject syllabi on
syllabi determined by national core syllabus comm1tt<*es. Teacher
education programmes need to take cognisance of core syllabi, and,
with regard to environmental education, need to train the student
teachers to make the best use of all subject syllabi to create
environmentally literate school pupils.
South Africa Is well placed for curriculum development In teacher
education^ Since school curricula are similar throughout the country,
training college curricula may be more readily compared and
contrasted. Progressive colleges such as Edgewood and Johannesburg
have become models of EE In teacher education, and with their example
other colleges are now considering their own curricula with regard to
EE.
Development of EE courses has been hampered by apathy In schools
with regard to "new" programmes or projects, but with the recent
upsurge of Interest In EE that this country has experienced 1t Is
hoped that both college and school curricula will be more effectively
used In developing a more environmentally literate public.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cooperative Scientific Programmes/Council for Scientific and
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Industrial Research. A South African Perspective on Conservation
Behavior - A Progranine Description. "SA National Scientific
Progranmes Report No. 76", 1983.
Harvey, 6.D. A Conceptuillzatlon of Environmental Education.
■The Report of the North American Regional Seminar on
Environmental Education." Aldrlch, 3.1. , Blackburn, A.M. and Abel,
G.A. (eds.). Columbus, Ohio: ERIC/SHEAC, 1977.
Hurigerford, H.R. and Peyton, R.B. "Strategies for Developing an
Environmental Education Curriculum." Paris: Unesco, 1980.
Hurry. L.B. Directions In Environmental Education and Their
Implications for the Training of Pr'<mary School Teachers In the
Transvaal: Toward a synthesis. D.Ed. Thesis: UNISA, 1982.
Irwin, P.R. Conservation Awareness Amongst White Adolescents In
South Africa: A Study of Senior Secondary Pupils In Natal. M. Ed.
Thesis: University of Cape Town, 1977.
N.ghtengale, C.S. An Analysis of the Educational Potential of
Sites In the Cape Peninsular for Secondary School Fleldwork In
Environmental Studies. M.A. Thesis: University of Cape iow7., 1<;77.
Smyth, J.C. Environmental Education: A Hajor Advance. "The
Report of the North American Regional Seminar on Environmental
Education." Aldrlch, J.L., Blackburn, A.M. and Abel, 6. A.
(eds.). Columbus, Ohio: ERIC/SHEAC, 1977
Stapp, W.B. and Cox, D.A. Environmental Education Activities
Manual . Farmlngton Hills, Michigan, 1979.
Stapp, W.B. "Design and In^lementatlon of Environmental Education
Curricula ,or Primary and Secondary Schools. Environmental
Education: Proceedings of the Internationa. Conference on
Environmental Education 3rd-8th April 1982. Mool River: Treverton
School. 1982.
VIII. G. Railton. Esther P. "Where are the Jobs for Graduates with
Master's Degrees In Environmental Education?" Professor of
Education, Callforrtia state University, Hayward, Hayward
California. 94542, USA
Ken Hanley probably found the most Interesting answers. Last
spring he took a leave to lead an expedition of physicians to study
high altitude physiology In Nepal and the Himalayan mountains. Of
course that wasn't his first trip overseas, and while there he did his
own study of the Impact of trekking on the local cultures. He also
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leads expeditions from village to rock climb In Switzerland, and
closer to home to hike Into the California wilderness, climb Mt.
Shasta or raft the Russian Rivers. That's not all, he and his parents
formed a non-^proflt organization to bring bobcats, eagles and other
wildlife Into classrooms. He supplements these erratic Incomes by
teaching adventure courses In a community college.
The graduates to be described in this paper aro e;tamples of the
people who obtain a master's In environmental education through an
option In curriculum In the teacher education department of California
State University, Hayward. Their stories should give environmental
educators Ideas of the scope of opportunities everyvihere^ As the term
education Implies, over 50 percent of the graduates are teaching*
Most had jobs when they entered the program, but have enhanced their
work assignments by being allowed to do spc^clal projects or take
curriculum leadership In their districts. Some have become
administrators or resource teachers* They can qualify for
administration by choosing electlves In the field. Several have found
that private schools offer more opportunity for Innovations In outdoor
education than the more bureaucratic and suite-shy public schools.
The program has attracted students from other countries. Larola
returned to New Delhi to set up a science and environmental curriculum
center while teaching science and Is now worScIng for the United
Nations. Shieh Is a professor In a teacher's college In Taiwan.
Aresh, from Japan, Is now teaching language In Australia. But Mun
Ping Ma became Elizabeth Peoples and teaches senior citizens Chinese
culture and oriental cooking in Michigan.
Four graduates direct outcoor education programs. More of these
positions have opened recently. Some combine teaching In the winter
with outdoor adventure programs In the summer. Special education
offers special opportunities to use gardening as therapy, or rock
climbing for social rehabilitation. Moreland decided after a master's
deg.ee to leave alternative education and obtain a teaching credential
and she Is now directing a therapeutic play program. Carlston raised
thousands of dollars for one district through federal funds to
Integrate economically hard-pressed and culturally diverse children.
Alton directs an American Indian program for two large school
districts.
Several find Jobs In higher education. Junior colleges have
already been mentioned. Taylor moved from being the author's graduate
assistant to taking her place while she went on a sabbatical leave to
a lectureship In the Recreation Department at San Francisco State.
Swift Is currently a very successful doctoral ca:id1date at the
University of Michigan. Others are pursuing degrees at Stanford and
the University of California. Several have been encouraged to teach
extension courses at Hayward, their parent college. Miche finds this
to be a nice supplement to her work as a special Instructor for gifted
children In a public school district. Meanwhile she Is working on a
doctorate In philosophy.
Not all education Is done In formal or informal schools. The
regional, state, and national parks have hired several of the
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graduates or encouraged them to get their degrees In envlrinmental
education with electlves In life sciences. Two of these people have
become park directors. Others are In the Fish and Wildlife Department
and In forestry. Some work In nature centers and wildlife programs.
The rationale Is that these Interpreters are In most demand for school
field tr1ps» therefore It behooves them to understand the organization
of curriculum and the psychology of Instructional techniques.
Of course a few have ussd the master's degree to move from formal
education to Industry. Garrlsan uses his curriculum development
courses to direct the training program at Lawrence Labs. Two alumni
direct personnel training programs In Industry; one teaches auto
mechanics In a privately owned shop. Reld serves as executive
secretary of the Interior Forestry Association. Conversely, others
use the degree to go from other occupations Into teaching. Cook
retired from the Air Force to teach In upstate New York. Rodriguez
moved from P&E llason to energy manager for a school district.
Schardt and Jaeger moved from volunteer work In school gardens and
nature areas to teaching assignments In charge of the programs.
However, others have chosen for personal reasons to go Into volunteer
work. For example, Lawton organized ANTS, a program to train
volunteers to lead urban outdoor Instructional activities with the
schools.
Jackie Gllmore attended the NAEE conference. She Is an example of
those who have found free-lancing to be most rewarding. She left
California teaching to help set up the outdoor education center In
Jackson* Wyoming. Now she has developed her original Interests of
photography and writing to develop slide-cassette programs and
children's postcard series about the national parks. Warren Arnold
developed his hobby of wood and soapstone carving to achieve
recognition and success as a marble sculptor.
The achievements of the alumni, kept current by a newsletter, are
Impressive. A large number of the graduates now lead Project Learning
Tree, Project Wild and other workshops offered through the Oakland
Museum and Ihe county Offices of Education. Their Influence Is
significant by their participation In an annual Bay Area Environmental
Education Resource Fair. Burnwerth won the Kodak Teacher's Award for
her use of the camera to teach primary science. Caruso's Junior high
students won so many awards at the regional science and energy fairs
that he also won the classroom award.
These selected graduates represent about two hundred alumni. They
hold all sorts of Interesting environmental vocations In teaching,
administration, parks, museums. Industry, and private pursuits.
Environmental educators are an especially creative and Interesting lot.
VIII. H. Shewchuk, Terry R. and Joan M. Snyder. "Environmental
Biology: Grande Prairie Regional College". Coordinator,
Biology Instructional Group, Science Department, Grande
Prairie Regional College, Grande Prairie, Alberta, Canada T8V
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4C4; Instructor, Biology Instructional Group, Science
Department, Grande Prairie Regional College, Grande Prairie,
Alberta, Canada T8V 4C4.
Normally Biology 298 - Environmental Biology Is offered In the
standard lecture/laboratory format In the first or second year of a
university transfer program at Grand Prairie Regional College. Since
1981 we have offered on additional section of this course conducted In
an Intensive two week field trip format.
Students who Indicate an Interest In taking this course are
Interviewed and prioritized according to their background, program
requirements, past performance In other biology courses. Interests and
maturity. A maximum of 16 students are permitted to enroll by the end
of January.
Two evening sessions are held. In mid-February and mId-Narch, to
outline In detail the course objectives, reading assignments, format,
st'dent responsibilities, staff responsibilities, contract
construction and expectations. A map-reading assignment, a soils
assignment and a population sampling assignment are handed out and
these are coiiq>leted by the student before m1d-^Apr1K Students are
also expected to complete a written contract outlining their
objectives and to obtain approval of their contract prior to mid-April.
The actual field course begins In late April. Two days are
devoted to equipment orientation, sampling techniques, visiting a
local timber harvesting operation and final preparation for travel.
The following 17 days are devoted to vIsUIng and examining natural
habitats In Alberta and British Columbia. Major stops occu> In
Jasper, Banff, Waterton. Creston, Kokanee Springs, Osoyoos, Vancouver,
Victoria, Nanalmu and Pacific Rim National Park. Arrangements are
made to draw upon the knowledge of local experts In Industry or
natural history suchs as company foresters or park Interpreters.
During the 1983 trip, at least 18 such external assets were directly
Involved In providing the group with local Interpretation.
The students prepare for such guided activities by prior reading
and observation as well as participating In student-prepared seminars
on some aspects of the next day's activities. For example, prior to
visiting the Columbia Ice Fields, one student presented a seminar on
glaclatlon and prior to visiting an Intertldal area another student
presented a seminar on Intertldal ecology. Guided activities are
followed by evening discussions of ecological principles and concepts
observed. Students are expected to make field notes, keep a personal
log book, and to make a collection of 5 plants In museum condition as
part of their minimal course requirements.
During the course, the students are responsible for the following
expenses: tuition, books, food and accommodation whicd has to be paid
for (e.g., motels, camping npr^its). It Is estimated that these
expenses amount to $350 to $450 per student. The College provides
transportation, ferry fees, admission fees and Instructor/technician
expenses.
Student grades are assigned by the Instructor/studenl contract and
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evaluation Is done by all participants collec' ively.
Students who have taken the course In the field tr*.p forTtat have
Indicated that this style of learning the basic principles and
concepts of ecology have been most meanlngfu!, realistic and lasting.
A number of students have described thaU experiences with this course
as the most significant event In their education In that It has served
as a focal point for making future career and educational decisions.
The course has also played a significant role In the personal
development of students and has provided a nucleus for the formation
of very lasting friendships among members of the group.
It Is also significant that the Instructors of the course have
received both encouragement and support of colleagues, administration
and the Board of Governors in undertaking to present this course In a
uniquely personal way.
IX. A- Andrews, Bill. "Environmental Education: A Moral Base for
Decision Making". Science Education Department, Faculty of
Education, University of Toronto, 371 Bloor Street West,
Toronto, Ontario M5S 2R7 Canada
Environmental problems arise largely from the accumulative effect
of the "environmentally-negative" behavior of individuals. As a
result, environmental problems can best be alleviated by changing this
behavior. Behavior change can be effected through legislative and
market Incentive methods. Such methods are, at best, of short-term
value since they treat symptoms instead of causes. The long-term
solution Involves the development of an "environmentally-positive"
moral base upon which people can make decisions which determine their
behavior. This paper described that moral base and the means by which
It can be developed and utilized In the classroom.
IX. B. Carroll, James. "Outdoor Education Programs In Metropolitan
Toronto Schools." Co-ord1nator of Geography and Outdoor
Education, Scarborough Board of Education, 21 Chipping Road,
Don Hills, Ontario, Canada M3B 1L2-
Where We Are
Toronto, the capltol city of the Province of Ontario, celebrated
Its 150th year as a city In 1984. The city Is the "centre" of a
region known as the "Golden Horseshoe" of southern Ontario. This
region Is Inhabited by 3.8 million people and Is the most populous
area in Canada. Metropolitan Toronto's population In 1984 Is
approximately 2.2 million.
The city U located on the north shore of Lake Ontario, towards
the western end of the lake. Since Ontario has always been one of the
major hubs of population and Industry in Canada, the city has
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grown quickly in the last 100 years.
Who We Are
The Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto is a corporate federation
that links together the cities of Toronto, Scarborough, York,
Etobicoke, North York, and the Borough of East York. It was created
in 1953 to provide unified services for the entire metropolitan region
as a whole.
The Metro School Board
Education in the metro region is under the umbrella control of the
Metropolitan School Board, and Roman Catholic education Is in the care
ot the Metropolitan Separate School Board. The School Board is
composed of Trustees from the six area boards plus representatives
appointed by the Metropolitan Separate School Board.
An advisory council of directors to the MSB reports to the central
board, and its work is supported by a number of staff committees with
representation from the various are'^ boards and the School Board.
These committees deal with a broad range of topics of metro-wide
concern such as outdoor education.
It Is as members of this Outdoor Education Committee that this
brief and visual presentation is offered.
Ed ucation in Ontario
In Ontario, taxpayers support two different systems: the public
school system (non*denominational) up to Grade 13 and the Roman
Catholic separate school system up to Grade 10 prior to 1984 but now
up to Grade 13. Elementary and secondary schools are administered by
public and separate school boards made up of elected school trustees.
The boards are governed by the rules and regulations of the
provincial government's Ministry of Education. The federal government
has no Jurisdiction over educational matters in the provinces.
Outdoor Education Committee
This committee meets regularly, and its aim Is to help promote
outdoor education in the schools of Metro Toronto. All
representatives share a common Interest in the goals of outdoor
education and are Involved in promoting this interest within their own
school boards.
The group acts as a forum to dic'iuss policies and standards such
as safety guidelines, as well as to simply share ideas.
Representatives from this committee also sit on committees
established to assist the Metropolitan Toronto and Region Conservation
Authority administer residential programs shared between the KTRCA and
the Metropolitan School Board.
Formula Financing
Much of what is accomplished in outdoor education comes from the
formula financing administered by the Budget Formula Review
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Conroittee. The money which each member boird uses to finance Its
outdoor programs Is set by this cowmlttee. The amount Is ba«ed upon
the student enrollment In each of the elenentrry and secondary
panels. Other sums are similarly allocated for related activities
such as plant maintenance or transportation. Guch money Is drawn by
the member boards based upon the formulae financing but can be used
for whatever program priorities the Individual board established.
Alms and Ob.lsctlves
Although there may be slight variations In the programs practised
by each of the member boards, all share a common philosophy of outdoor
education. This philosophy can be 'Summarized by the following
characteristics :
- direc expericr«-e
- natural se'vting
- a living laboratory
- interdisciplinary approach
- experiences, attitudes, skills only obtainable in and
applicable to an outdoor setting
As early as 1971, an outdoor education report concerning the
number of residential experiences that each student in Netropo'itan
Toronto should have during his/her stay in the school system from
Kindergarten to Grade 13 was made to the Metropolitan School Board.
At present, the Outdoor Education Committee recommends that each
student in the period of tiwe that he/she is In school from
Kindergarten to Grade 13 have at least two 5-day (or equivalent)
residential experiences. It further recommends that one experience oe
at the elementary level and the other at the secondary level.
Over the past few years since the residential ain was established,
most boards within Metropolitan Toronto have expanded their programs
ronslderably.
Perhaps the most Important expa'^sion has taken place in the
purcha':1ng of land in order to build the board's own outdoor education
site. Several boards havt either purchased property or shared in the
administration of a property with another organization.
The school boards of Metropolitan Toronto can " w offer an
outstanding outQ<^or education program.
Individual Board Program
It would be impossible to list the wids variety of programs
offered by the memte"^ school toards. The hai.douts accowpanilng the
presentation will give a good description of the programs offered by
each boa>'d.
Ir' general, most boards offer sites and personnel to carry out a
Wide variety of day activities in outdoor education. Many boards also
offer financial assistance and/or transportation for such programs.
The boards' residential programs are offered at their own sites or
on land which is leased. All boards within Metro Toronto use '■'^e
facilities of the Metropolitan Toronto and Region Conserva^ on
Authority under a shared "Agreement" plan with the Metropolitan
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Toronto School Board. The MIRCA ?^^o operates several sites at which
time blocks can be purchased.
The school boards of Metro pronto make excellent use of either
nearby or distant wilderness facilities to expand their resident al
programs. Large private camps and other facilities are Decked by
schools which desire different experiences.
Several boards offer summer school programs which often reflect
the uniqueness of tha envlrorknent. These courses can be taken for
Interest, leadership training, credit, or certif Icatlon* Co'irses are
often offered for both students and teacher*^.
Hetropolltan Toronto and Region Conservation Authority Programs
The Conservation Authorities Act of 1946 provided the means by
which the Province of Ontario and the municipalities on Ontario
watersheds could Join tcgether as a conservation authcrlty to
undertake prograiT!S for natural resource management*
Since 1957, the MTRCA haf; undertaken a comprehensive program of
resource management on che w^^tersheds under Its Jurisdiction*
Conservation education was one of ch^ major problems undertaken and It
was In this program that the school boards of Metropolitan Toronto
became Interested.
The NTRCA now offers a wide rang^^ of programs In which school
boards can participate*
Perhaps the most Important prograiH metro schools 1> the
residential facility program shared with the Metropolitan Sihooi
Board. As early as 1963, the Authoi^ty showed Interest In the
development of residential programs whc? a permanent facility was
established at Albion Hills* The "Schools Muf.'inlstr ^tlon Act" enabled
boards of education to enter Into a9reements with Conservation
Authorities for the development of facilities for "out-of-classroom"
programs on Authority lands.
In 1973, the Authority entered Into an "Agreement" for the
development and operation of a field centre with the Metropolitan
Toronto School Board, the Metropolitan Separate School Board, and the
neighbouring York County Board of Education. In 1979, such an
agreement was a'iso shared with the development of residences at the
Lake St. George property.
Under the "Agreement", provision was made for a "Joint Planning
Committee" composed of representatives from the boards and the
Authority A "Program Advisory Committee" also assists In the
planning of programs shared between the two parent organizations.
Time blocks, the number according to board size, are divided among
the school boards that have signed the "Agreements." Classes of
students are **en sent to the field centras for a residential
experience.
Staff from the "Agreement" school boards are seconded to the
centres arnJ provide the educational l3adersh1p des'^red by visiting
schools .
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IX. C. Clausen, Bernard L. "An Analyst of Teacher Selection of
Project Outlook Activities'. Associate Professor of Biology,
University of North Iowa, Cedar Falls, Iowa 50614 USA
Project OUTLOOK Is a new type of env1rorM«ental education program
created In 1982 by a group of Iowa teachers who were experienced In
environmental education. OUTLOGK Is a curriculum enrlctMnent program
designed with an educational philosophy and methodology derived from
the research of Plaget and Karplus. Project OUTLOOK Implements the
concepts of Plaget who Identified levels of learning readiness and the
learning cycle which was formalized by Karplus.
The project Includes 140 enrichment activities written for
specific grade levels and Is published In grade level sets for K-2,
3-5, 6-8, 9-12. The packets for grade levels K-2 and 3-5 each contain
36 separate activity cards. The packets for grade levels 6-8 and 9-12
contain 34 activity cards each. Eleven topic spheres and six themes
were Incorporated Into the activities.
Project OUTLOOK Is sponsored by the University of Northern Iowa,
Iowa Department of Public Instruction and the Iowa Natural Heritage
Foundation with the assistance of the Iowa Conservation Commission and
other state resource agencies.
Project OUTLOOK was Inservlced during the summers of 1983 and 1984
through twenty wccf' long workshops offered by the University of
Northern Iowa. Th.. workshops were held at the Conservation Education
Center which Is a f*.eld station operated by the Iowa Conservation
Commlsc^on In Sprlngbrook State Park. UNI science education faculty
members were the Instructors for the workshops, which carried two
semester hours of graduate credit.
Two courses comprised each workshop. During the five mornings,
Plagetlan theory and Its extensions were examined. The five
afternoons were devoted to incorporating the OU"i.OOK activities Into
the curriculum of the Individual teacher and In cnductlng some of the
activities with peer groups. As teachers worked through the
actlvUlts In their grade leve' packet, they shared ideas for
Implementation and curriculum r'-^rdlnatlon. The Instructors assisted
the teachers In perceiving how ^nelr subject matter could be extended
to the environmental interface between traditional subjects by using
the OUTLOOK enrichment activities. Many participants found this
effort to be a particularly exciting and beneficial part of the
workshop.
The pv,pulat1on of participating teachers was somewhat pre-selected
by several factors. The field center location attracted those who
were Interested in the out-of-doors. The workshop announcements
tended to be noticed by science oriented teachers because of the Iowa
law which requires, as a minimum, the teaching of "conservation and
environmental awareness" in the science curriculum and the designation
of the workshop for sci^r'-p education credit. Co<:t and credit hours
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were attractive. The reputation of the University as a leader In
conservation/environmental education was an Influence on those
desiring to obtain a new program of environmental teaching activities.
The participants reflected a wide variety of teaching positions
rarrging from small rural school districts to large urban school
districts. Soiiie participants were generallsts and some were
specialists • The age and experience range was wide with some having
taught for thirty years and others who were Just beginning their
teaching careers.
Thir study Includes data from the five workshops on Implementing
OUTLOOK taught by the author and one section taught by Or* Carl
Bollwlnkel. The total number of teachers Involved In the study was
231. The teachers were required to select approximately 50% of the
OUTLOOK activities from the grade level packet for Incorporation In
their curricula. The course assignment was to Identify the specific
placement of each activity selected and to explain the rationale for
the placement.
Overall the teachers exceeded the minimum requirement^ by
selecting substantially more than 50% of the activities from their
grade level packet.
The median numbers of activities selected by each grade lev^l
group decreased from 26 for K-2 to 18 for 9-12. The decrease In
medians correlates with Increasing levels of specialization. Time and
opportunity were primary limiting factors.
In order to determine teacher perceptions on placement OUTLOOK
activities In the curriculum, self-contained classroom teaching
situations were analyzed as a ?^*3b-populat1on. The teacher of a
self-contained classrorm has responsibility for the subject areas of
Science, Health, Socla'i Studies, Language Arts, Reading, Mathematics,
and may or may not have responsibility for Art, Music, and Physical
Education. Private school teachers additionally may have
responsibility for teaching Religion. The self-contained classroom
provides the maximum variety of choice In currlcular placement of
these enrlchme t activities. It also provides maximum opportunity for
multi-disciplinary applications.
The laraest numbers of activities were placed In Science, Social
Studies and Language Arts by the self-contained classroom teachers at
grade levels K-2, 3-5, 6-8. Some teachers were able to cross
correlate an activity to enrich more than one subject area at the same
time. Many teachers apparently had problems with time sequences In
the curriculum which obstructed such correlation between subject
areas. Some teachers viewed one subject area as the primary
curriculum area for placement of the activity, while the correlated
subject areas were considered to be secondary or so obvious that there
was not need to Identlfv them. Mathematics and Health were not saen
as primary areas subjec*. areas for Inclusion of large numbers of
OUTLOOK activities although mathematic skills and health concepts were
acknowledged to be r'3lnforced by a number of activities. The
assignment seemed to sta»-t a number of teachers thinking about total
curriculum reorganization to more adequately reflect cross
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correlations.
However, the majority of participants found that a complete
reorganization of their courses of study was too much to contemplate
during an Intensive task oriented one-week workshop.
Selections were distributed widely by discriminating teachers
governed by personal needs. The data on activity selection for
self-contained classrooms shows each of the activities being selected
by at least one teac^ier for various subject areas* When the
opportunity for choice of subject areas Is reduced to only one option
no teacher failed to select less than SOX of the activities for
enrichment of the single subject. For example, mathematics teachers
selected 64X of the activities and art teachers selected 11%.
The study shows that 231 teachers In the sample population found
the Project OUTLOOK activities versatile and useful. Regardless of
grade level or subject area taught, the 140 activities were
Incorporated into existing curricula at median rates exceeding
The analysis of s&lf-contalned classrv'vii teachers* selections
showed the highest placement of activities to be In Social Studies and
Science curricula. A large number of activities were also placed in
the Language Arts and Reading curricula. Teachers who had more
restricted teaching assignments and teachers who were specialists In
one subject area generally selected almost as many activities as those
who were In self-contained classrooms. The multi-disciplinary
applications of the activities demonstrates their usefulness for
enrichment of any of the subject areas represented.
The very high levels of flexibility, versatility and utility for
the OUTLOOK activities which have been Identified In the population of
Iowa teachers studied underline the suitability of this enrichment
program for at least the entire midwestern region of the United States
and probably the world with minor modifications. Other states may
wish to supplement with some activities to reflect regional
differences. Other nations may wish to develop their own set of
activities using the proven methodology and philosophy of the OUTLOOK
program. The OUTt OOK program system of curriculum enrichment and
Inservlce training Is easily adapted to reflect cultural and
environmental uniqueness.
OUTLOOK Is a copyrighted program and the OUTLOOK staff Is
available to assist any state or nation which may be interested in
adopting, modifying or developing Its own versions. Individuals or
teams from other states and nations are most welcome to participate 1n
the Inservlce workshops.
IX. 0. D1 Chiro, eiovanna. William Morgan and WMHam Staop,
"Environmental Education and Community Problem Solving."
School of Natural Resources, The University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.
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This environmental problem solving and action research model
embodies an Ideology and methodology of both educational research and
learner Investigation. It Is rooted In the process of reflection and
action, and Is the means for teachers to Improve their own practice
and to help students to acquire knowledge and personal empowerment*
The model Is also designed to encourage the Integration of the basic
disciplines within the curriculum, to reflect upon and Improve the
learning and Instructional goals articulated by the school system, and
to Improve the quality of the bio-physical and social environment
through education.
The Instructional model functions as two simultaneous "moments"
aimed at Improving the teaching and learning environment: 1) The
Action Research Moment: Conducting classroom-based research to develop
an Improved teaching and learning environment 1.e*» developing
appropriate curriculum to more effectively link education with real
world issues through systematic planning. Implementing and evaluating
classroom actions: 2) The Environmental Problem^SolvInq Woment :
developing a critically aware and responsive population of j^oung
people with the motivation and skills necessary to solve problems of
Important local social and environmental Issues with the aim of
enhancing the quality of the social-ecological environment through
educational means. The process ]s designed for students to gain
skills and personal empowerment through participation In the analysis
and resolution of a conmunlty Issue.
Major Alms of this Pro.lect
1. To develop the understanding that our Individual and community
actions are connected to human and natural systems worldwide.
2. To promote a cross-cultural direction In education to Increase
tha understanding that we do Indeed live and operate In a
global society.
3. To Improve the learning environment by actively Unking
education with real world problems and their solutions.
4. To Improve the teacdlng environment by ednptliig a more critical
pedagogy v^hereby the teacher reflects upon, and critiques the
curriculum and his/her teaching practices.
5- To enhance learner responsibility and efficacy 1n taking
committed action to Improve their own community and environment.
The Roles of Participants
To promote critical thinking amongst the various members of the
project team: teachers, students, administrators, and university
personnel (UP). All participants are involved at different stages of
the project development and to different degrees.
1) School administrators: principally involved In the Initial
stage of the project to discuss school system concerns and
Identify problem areas and trends. They also attend an Initial
planning meeting with teachers and UP to discuss goals, roles,
processes and the extent of the support they are able to offer.
2) Teachers: Involved every stage of the process Including
Initial planning and negotiation sessions with administrations.
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designing of the project. Implementation, monitoring, and
constant evaluation. They should focus on the personal.
Institutional and political constraints encountered In the
classroom In order to work toward their resolution*
3) Students: Involved directly In the environmental solving
process In the classroom. Also Involved In reflection on
personal feeMngs and values regarding the learning process
they are experiencing. They should consider different aspects
that Influence this experience Includlng-^themselves, the
teacher, the school, the administration, the community, the UP,
parents and significant others,
4. University Personnel: Involved In initial planning meetings and
throughout the process If deemed necessary by participants In
the project. Assist In planning. Implementation, monitoring
and evaluation of classroom activities. Provide suggestions,
feedback, and currlcular materials, and other resources In
support of the goals and directions of the project.
The Components of the General Process
The components of the general process Include three steps-^-the
negotiation process, the probleii solving process, and the action
research process. In the negotiation process , the UP, teachers and
administrators meet to clarify goals, roles, classroom processes, and
research plans. The problem solving process Involves teachers,
students and UP and focuses on Identification of a soc1o--env1ronmental
Issue of Interest to the students, fact-flnoing and Information
gathering on the Issue, formulating alternative action plans, and
taking some action to solve the problem. The action research process
(which occurs simultaneously with problem solving), concentrates on
understanding, analyzing and Improving the classroom environment. It
Involves reflection on teaching practices. Institutional constraints
to effective education, and designing action plans to Improve the
situation.
The Implementarlon of the Instructional Hodel:
Four pilot-level studies were conducted by University of Michigan
researchers In the Ann Arbor Public School System, and another In an
undergraduate course at the School of Natural Resources, The projects
were undertaken In an elementary. Junior high, and high school. In a
pH^>l1c school system In a middle-sized community (110,000
Population), The elementary sciool study entitled Community
Transportation Involved a 6th g^ade class and teacher for 23-1 1/2
hour sessions over d period of :welve weeks. The facilitators and
teacher met regularly to reflect on the project, evaluate the process
and plan for the next session. Initial cl;»ssroom sessions Involved
Identification and assessment of social and environmental problems
within the community. Through negotiation and consensus
decision-making and valuing processes, the class selected
transportation Issues as their problem area. Subsequent sessions were
concerned with developing and conducting an Interview questionnaire to
gather Information, establishing criteria for selecting a specific
transportation problem and Interpersonal valuing and group process
251
activities to aid In understanding other viewpoints and making group
decisions. The class then decided to research bicycle transportation
problem areas and to brainstorm Vjeas for solutions. Out of this came
a process of evaluating alternative routes with prev^^ously Idi^ntlfled
criteria In mind such as safety, economics, expediency, and community
access and use.
Some of the project outcomes and cofimunlty actions that occurred
were: development, administration, and analysis of a community
transportation questionnaire, setting up a question/answer session
with city planner and bicycle coordinator, and writing and circulating
a formal transportation position plan.
The Junior high school study entitled Civics In Action was
conducted tr rough the social studies program In five ninth grade
dvlcs classes. Students selected, individually or In groups, a
social or environmental problem that concerned or Interested them,
taking into account previously determined criteria for selection —
Interest, available Information, learner^s ability to affect change,
appropriate timeline to Impact the Issue, etc. Alternative
information resources were Identified and sought out such as:
government agencies, public Interest groups and organizations, city
offlcals, etc. The Issues selected for Investigation gave the
students the opportunity to Interact with community organizations as
their primary source of Information. Students chose to research
Issues such as teenage runaways, child abuse, and drug abuse, rape,
crime, recycling, acid rain and nuclear power.
Some of the project outcome and community actions that resulted
were: videotaping and broadcasting an environmental debate on
community cable TV, publishing letters to "Letters to Editor," writing
a column In community newspaper, fundralsing, oind personal lifestyle
change.
The third and fourth ection research studies were conducted In a
high school science program called Monitoring for Water Quality . The
projects Involved five senior biology classes for nine 55-m1nute
classes and three advance placement biology classes. The project was
designed to work through the process and techniques of testing water
quality ln the classroom, followed by running each test on the local
river. The students ran nine ieparate water quality tests on the
river and calculated the overall water quality Index. In-depth
discussions of test results led to recommendations on the hazards and
potential limits to community uses of the river.
Outcomes and actions resulting from the project Included:
establishing baseline data fnr the r1v3r so that future classes can
monitor the river's changes 1n water quality, establishing an annual
water quality testing program for the community, and submitting data
to local watershed council, local governments and public health
officials.
Evaluation cf the Instructional Model
The action research process functioned differently for the three
levels of participants learners, teachers, facilitators. The
University facilitators decided that there was the need for a
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redeflnmon of the facilitator role, the need for more extensive
p1anr<i5ig sessions with the teacher before ronwlttlng to the process,
and a greater understanding of the Institutional constraints to action
and comminlty-orlented research In the public school system.
From the teacher evaluations, we were able to determine the
Institutional constraints to actlon-orlented classroom teaching, such
as time schedules and number of students, as well as the effectiveness
and appropriateness of personal teaching practices and training.
Invaluable Information was gained through learner evaluations.
Students gained Increased awareness of their efficacy In having Input
In community issues, of the ability to achieve success In consensus
decision making even when faced with conflicting viewpoints and people
with different backgrounds and cultures, of the positive and negative
Implications certain values have on social and environmental problems,
and of the Impact of social, political, economic and ecological
factors on a community and societal problem. The following evaluatory
comments were obtained from the culminating written evaluations.
Comments of students:
"We learned about how to solve prob^ms, we showed a lot of people
that we cared, we learned how to resolve their differences."
"You get round to ether resources and you find out about different
resources outside of the school."
"It helped me to learn to work together as a groi.p."
"I learned a lot from my peers."
Comments of a teacher:
"In the area of mathematics, reading, and language arts, we were
able to bring students to real world use. They suddenly Izd
reasons to compute percentages and to grasp the concept. They
utilized pie graphs, bar graphs, and histograms. Best of all they
had to think critically, communicate thoughts, compromise on
various Issues, state values and sort through those values.
Working through the democratic process was far from being an 'all
time' simple task."
For the more critical comments and an analysis of the four Inltlei
experiences, we have Identified recommendations for project
modifications and items In need of further Investigation. Aspects of
action research that were not resolved as a result of our three
studies:
1. Whither learners shoild be Involved in all discussions between
facilitators and teacher/administrators In the preliminary
action research planning.
2. Whether the goals/objectives of action research are best
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achieved by focusing on small-scale projects
(school/neighborhood) or large scal*^ projects (state/national).
3. Whether teaching practices are changed permanently as a result
of action research*
4. Whether Ihstltutlonal changes resulting from the action
research project are permanent*
5. Whether some or all of the following teacher guidelines would
be beneficial to the teacher: In the roles of participants;
general classroom processes; data collection techniques;
principles of procedures; action research case studies;
selecting a community project; handling controversial Issues;
teacher preparation; program evaluation; etc.
6. Whether the facilitators should play a passive, semi-passive,
or active role during the action research project.
7. Whether 1t Is feasible to expect a teacher to do action
research as a part of his/her teaching practices without
outside assistance.
8. Whether It Is possible for a teacher to effectively evaluate
his/her teaching practices alone, or Is a critical community of
other teachers/facilitators necessary.
Prospects for the Future:
The environmental problem solving and action research model
surfaced a number of 1i>sues regarding the realization of EE goals In
the formal classroom context. Additional Investigation and experience
in other classrooms Is neede. to resolve some of the above Issues.
Currently, the University of Michigan research team Is in the
preliminary stages of Implementing this Instructional model with new
school districts, teachers and students, as well as assisting In the
negotiations to Institutionalize the model In the school system In
which it was first conducted.
IX. E. Fensham, Peter J. "New Movements In SC .nee Education:
International Evidence of Environmental Awareness." Professor
of Science Education, Faculty of Education, Monas:. university,
Clayton, Victoria, Australia, 3168.
Science curricula for schools at both the primary end secondary
levels of schooling underwent a remarkable change In irany countries
during the 1960s and early 1970s through curriculum rrojects which
sought to modernise ths teaching of science and to oxtend It more
universally throughout the whole population of school age children.
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The new curricula had a number of characteristics. Most, perhaps
all of them, emphasized the place of activity or laboratory experience
as a more central aspect of the learning of science. For secondary
schooling, many of the curriculum projects set out to bring the
content of learning more In line with the current understandings of
nature that make the sciences such powerful and significant features
of humankind In this second half of the 20th century* If these basic
understandings of modern science were the content emphasis of the new
secondary science curricula, the new primary science curricula very
often emphasized those Intellectual processes that were seen to be
Important In the ways scientists go about their work of extending
knowledge and applying It to problems In the physical and biological
world. Natural phenomena 'ere seen to be excellent contexts to
dev^^lop In young children to the basic processes of enquiry, of
classifying, of measuring, of Inferring, of pr^*d1ct1ng and of
so-called problem solving Itself.
Regardless of the level of schooling the changes that have Just
been outlined for science education In schools were reforms that drew
their content from analy$<»s of the nature of very pure or academic
forms of the sciences. This Is hardly surprising since these
curriculum projects were almost Invariably In the hands of
welUmeanIng academic scientists, science educators (a new breed of
professionals within academla) and successful secondary science
teachers whose whole socialization. Interest and expertise lay In
these forms of science.
Nevertheless whVie these reforms were being Implemented In
schools, two other movements Involving science were gathering
momentum. The first of these Is the Environmental Movement which
began with Individuals In a number of countries recognizing that there
was very serious deterioration of the biophysical environment ',n which
civilisation and human society exists and on which the more
Industrialized forms of society Increasing depend for energy, food,
shelter and consumer goods. Many of these problems such as
atmospheric and water pollution, soil loss, resource destruction, and
the endangering of species have arisen from the application (via new
tecnnologles) of scientific knowledge.
The second movement Is known as Science and Society, or as
Science, Society and Technology (S.S. & T.). This Is a two-pronged
response to the negative Image of science that has developed among
many persons throughout the world. Possible sources of this negative
view are the continuous fear of a nuclear holocaust, the Involvement
of something like SOX ot ♦•he world'^ scientists In developing military
science, the undesirable side effects of some of the so-called wonder
drugs of pharmaceutical science and of the pesticides and Insecticides
so widely used 1n contemporary agricultural science, polluting effects
of acid rain and of Industrial wastes that stem from technological
processes that were associated by c dinary citizens with outworklrgs
of science.
The Envlronnierital Movement and Science and Society (or S.S,&T.)
are movements that both recognize that there has. In many Instances,
been
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a mismanagement of the use of scientific knowledge and that a much
more responsible approach to how science Is applied Is needed If
quality of life Is to be Improved for more and more people and for an
Indefinite future.
SOME NEW CRITERIA FOR ENVIRONHEWTAl AWARENESS
Towards the end of the 1970s and certainly now In the 1980s, there
has been a much more Informed discussion among science educators about
what the Environment or Science, Society and Technology can mean for
teaching science In schools » These discussions have produced new
criteria for science education that are evidence of growing
environmental awareness.
I. A workshop at the HIJmegen Conference of UHESCO/CASE/ICSJ-CTS
produced a very useful set of characteristics (Table 1} and If applied
In the classroom, coulc^ enable science tochers to teach almost dny
science curriculum so fhat It made a ^-^ntrlbutlon to environmental
education. Of course, some curriculum materials do Include much more
content than others do, that greatly assists science teachers who wish
to make that contribution.
A recent production by UNESCO (1984) of two new sets of resources
that win assist sclerce teachers to teach their science education
morp env'ironmen tally could do more to accelerate these Ideas In
practice.
Table 1 : Characteristics of Environmental Science Education
f. Environmental Science Education (ESE) Is oriented towards a
problem.
2. ESE Is concerned with realistic situations.
3. ESE alms to elaborate the alternatives that exist for
situations and the skl'l of choosing between them.
4. ESE Includes action as an Integral component.
5. ESE uses the real environment of the school and Its surrounding
as a context.
6. ESE Involves the clarification of values.
7. ESE alms to Increase the ability that students have to
contribute to Improving their own environmental situations.
II. The UNESCO-UNEP Environmental Education Project (1980) Identified
five broad areas ^ Population, Food, Resources, Energy and Ecology
that embr?ce many of the acute environmental problems facing mankind.
Each of them nas many sub*top1cs that could be treated within the
curr1r»;U< content of science courses at school. The curriculum
workshops 1n ^sla under the leadership of the Asian Programs of
Educational Innovation for Development (APEIO, 1980) are outstanding
e^^mples that hd^e heV^ed many countries In that region to Implement
this tvpe of content Into tneir primary science curricula.
III. In 1982 a list of topic areas was proposed as a basic core
science learning for all students at schools. Each topic area, to be
on the 11st, had to readily yield In any country or more local
setting, science sub-topics for learning which could enhance »he
quality of the learners' lives outside of school, at home and In
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256
S'' -.1etv.
The 11st of topU areas is given In Table 2 and It will be evident
that there Is considerable overlap with the broad areas of the
UNESCO-UNEP Project.
Table 2: Topic Areas for Science Education at School that Can Meet
Criteria of Quality of Life
Topic Areas
1. The Senses and Measurement as an extension of the senses
2. Our Universe
3. The Human Body
4. Health, Nutrition and Sanitation
5 . Food
6. Ecology
7. Resources {natural and man-made)
8. Population
9. Pollution
10. Energy use
11. Technology (social and personal)
12. Quality of life
IV. Again, the Regional Office for UNESCO In Asia set In motion In
1983 a new APEIO project under the tUle of Science for All (APEIO,
1983). This latest effort In the Asia Region to Improve science
education Is based on the belief that Science and Technology and their
applications are not part of social science and culture. At both the
personal and national levels, health, nutrition, sanUatlon,
agriculture. Industry and the Improvement of the environment, are seen
as fields In which scientific knowledge can be used as a powerful tool
ior solving human problems. Science education has a role to play in
developing in the whole population - scientifically trained personnel
and citizens alike - the capacity to use these powers responsibly c ^d
to appreciate their potential for good.
APPLYING THE CRITERIA OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
How environmentally aware are the new school science curricula?
When criteria of environmental awareness are applied to many existing
science curricula they do not score at all well. On the other hand,
It Is possible to point to curricula for science education that do
seem to measure up welt on these sorts of criteria.
Furthermore, even without wholesale revisions, the content of
science education does often offer the opportunity for teachers to
Include an environmental emphasis In the way In which various topics
are taught and learned.
ESTIMATES OF EMERGING ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
To provide some current estimates of how science cjrrlcula are
changing in the direction of environmental awareness, the opinions of
science educators in forty different countries were sought early In
1984. '
The Information sought was about "the change In student learning
experiences" from 1970 to 1984 for each of twenty- three sub- topics,
most of which are related to the five broad areas mentioned earlier.
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The sub--top1cs used in the survey are given in Table 3, and are
strongly influenced by the list of topic areas in Table 2.
The responses from 33 countries to the survey's sutr-topics were
given for the three levels of schooling, e1e?pentary, Junior secondary
and senior secondary* Responses could be (t) deflrcitely more learning
experiences, (ii) probably more learning experiences, (lii) either
estimates of lessened (-) learning experiences and (iv) not sure or nc
chango or not present*
Table 3: The Syb ToLlcs of the Sttrvey ef Changing Environmental
Awareness of Science Curricula (1970-84)
1* nutrition in relation to health (not just food science)
2. causes of disease and illness among humans
3. population control
4. population issurs in relation to those of food supply
5. health of the human body
6. effective use of water \j\ agriculture
7. water as a key ingredient for hinnan health
FOOD AND POPULATION
6, consumption and conservation of living resources
9. consumption and conservation of non-living resources (minerals and
fossil fuels)
10. the pldce of human beings as integral parts of, and interactive
contributors to the ecology of biophysical systems
11. critical conditions of threatened biological species
12. how science contributes to better quality of life
RESOURCES AND ECOLOGY
13. more efficient use of energy.
14. alternative renewable sources of energy for use (solar, wind,
tidaK etc.)
15. advantages and disadvontages of nuclear sources of energy for
peaceful purposes
16. scientific aspects of nuclear armaments and the risks of nuclear
war
17. varieties of pollution and pollution control associated with
industrialisation
18. preservation of features of the human historic heritage
ENERGY AND INDUSTRIALISATION
19. technology in society at large
20. technology affecting students as individuals
21. interaction of science and society
22. instrumentation and measurement
23. how computers are changing the nature of scientific w^ork
TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY
No single sub-topic had more than 50% of the respondents reporting
a definite increase at any one of the levels.
Fourteen sub-topics emerge at all levels with 50% or more of the
respondents saying definite or probable increases.
''nergy use (sub-topics 13 and 114) and conservation of resources
(8,9) are now being considered by teachers of science and all their
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2S8
students (all three levels) fairly conmoniy, and these topics are
Joined by others associated with nutrition (1). population health
(2.3,4,5), pollution (10,17) and technology (ID) in a good many
sUuatlons. The presence of the sub-topics at each of the three
levels means that all students at school, and not Just those
speclallsina in th« senior sciences, are 1nv<rlved.
The lowest penetrations of '^he curriculum are r<*ported for
sub-toplci T6, 18, 6 and 7. These gaps are serious ones and the more
so because there Is much public debate about them In many countries.
Acid rain and ether types of atmospheric pollution art rapidly
destroying the facades of historic buildings and other heritage
treasures In most Industrialized cities (sub-topic 18).
The loss of arable land through shortages of water or Inadequately
controlled use of Irrigation Is very serious In many countries
(suf:-top1c 6). Likewise the pollution of '"ter supplies Is worsening
rather than Improving on a world scale (si jlc 7).
Finally, It Is disturbing to find that on^y a few countries, even
at the upper secondary level, have inrarporated sub-topic 8, the
scientific aspects of nuclear armaments and the risks of nuclear war -
the source of what would be the greatest environmental disaster of all
were a nuclear war to break out.
The findings reported here, if they do not reflect actual changes
in the learning experience of student* , are bo: , encouraging and
sobering. They do indicate considerable change towards greater
environmental awareness In science curricula. However, on the tough
criterion of SOX "cporting a definite Increase, t is Indeed sobering
to learn that uot one of these sub-topics has been incorporated that
widely into the curricula at any of these three levels.
For srience educators cojwmltted to the environmental movement the
findings are also a measure of how much still has to be achieved.
i::. F. Fleming, Lyn and Jennifer Clark. "The Time is Right to Do
Something Wild." Director of Project Learning Tree, 1905
Chalcix Dr , Unit E, Lafayette, Colorado £10026, USA;
Conservation Education Officer, Alberta Fish and Wildlife, Fish
and Wildlife rivision, /.iberta E.jergy and Natural Resources,
Main Floor, North Tower, Edmonton, Alberta T5K 286, Canada.
Wildlife managers have long dreamed of a well inforned public
awAre of the value of our wildlife heritage and the need to manage and
conserve it. They have tried to inform the public about the wildlife
resource through information brochures, A/V's and public
presentations. Howevi»r, to use this type of content-based materia".,
many teachers had to uiake rrjm in an already full curriculum. If a
teacher did not have an Interest in wUdllfs and conservation, chances
were good thai the material either decorated walls or gathered dust on
the shelf.
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Project WILD 1s a unique environmental education program that Is
designed to make students aware of wildlife and the environment while
doing Indoor and outdoor activities that ar« easily Integrated Into
basic subjects areas: e.g. math, science, social studies, language
arts, music, art and physical education. It was written and developed
by educators and resource agency personnel for use by classroom
teachers in kindergarten through grade twelve, as well as youth group
leaders. WILD has a "bias balanced" approach to wildlife that has
gained It the support of a wide varlcly of conservation and
educational organizations.
IX. 6. Harmon, Terry and Robert Schwab. "A Frogram of Natural Resource
Management at the High School Level". University School,
Hunting Valley Campus, Chagrin Falls, Ohio, USA.
Over the past fourteen years a program has been developed which
applies basic science to the management of natural resources on and
around a high school campus near Cleveland, Ohio. Two hundred acres
of forest - and meadow-covered land provide protection to a small
watershed which serves an on--campus trout hatchery. Integrated
activities In aquaculture, forestry, and wildlife management provide
abundant topics for study, and products such as lumber, maple syrup
and trout are provided to the public, earning Income which supports
the program. P;oblems of managing resources on the campus are clearly
Identified with the broader, but similar problems In society at
large. Evidence Is provided that students' concerns for environmental
problems and Integrity Is established and strongly reinforced b>/ the
program.
IX. H. Howard, Jeanne. "Visions of the Future: Premises and
Materials." Associate Professor, Environmental and Urban
Studies, Virginia Polytechnic Institute ani; State University,
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA.
The purpose of this presentation was to offer a selection from the
variety of materials which have been prepared for classroom use In the
field of future studies and to analyze some of the assumptions ?nd
premises which underlie their development.
It Is the author's premise that there are three factors of
over-arching Importance which are critical to shaping our t**nughts on
what the future will be like, and that an emphasis on one or the other
of these three factors tends to sh^pe inost of the well-known scenarios
for the future. These three factors are: flr^t, the Importance of
technological development (and the rush to high technology) as a
determining factor In our thinking; second, the significance accorded
to environmental considerations In the past f1fte3n years, and an
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acknowledgement of the Importance of factoring envUomiiental concerns
Into declslon-rnaklng; and, third, the rapidly-occurring globalization
of the world's peoples and concerns, with the accompanying (w»> hope)
shifts In the perceptions of human beings toward one another. A
number of scenarios have evolved which emphasize one or another of
these concerns: the author believes that the best material for
classroom use— or for general use->would Involve a synthesis of all of
these concerns.
Among ihe many materials which have been developed for classroom
use which have a primary technological emphasis, probably the best
known are those which are derived from the scenarios produced by the
Hudson Institute, under the leadership of Its late director Herman
Kahn. Last year the group protiuced a program called "Visions of the
Future*, which has been pilot-tested In Arizona and Initiated In
several other states. The basic premise of "Visions" Is that
high-school students had been subjected, during the 1970s, to a
barrage of "negative thinking" In the classroom, and that the
materials which had been offered during these years had an
anti-technological, anti-Industrial, antl-feconomlc-growth bias built
In. "Visions" offers Its materials as a corrective to what it
considers these biases: In the words of the program's lead author,
"The goal of the program Is to restore a balanced perspective to the
excessively negative (and often outdated or misleading) rendering of
recent human history— e.g. , the population "explosion', the food
'shortage', resource 'depletion', the energy 'crisis. '.. .the school
children who have been exposed to these more realistic visions of the
future are redeveloping a sense of pride In America." Technology, in
this scenario, will and should advance with great rapidity, leading
the way toward a prosperous post-Industrial society which, with luck
and good management, should arrive with the minimum of social and
environmental disruption.
The "excessively negative thinking" to which the Hudson materials
refers came, as Is well-known, primarily from the environmental
movement, and especially from the landmark studies from the Club of
Rome, led by the Limits of Growth scenario. Limits and other
materials, while not p*^ spared specifically for classroom use, quite
appropriately were utilized In many classrooms. While the negative
bias which has been attributed to these materials may have come
largely from sources unfamiliar with the m^^terlals themselves (the
conclusion of the original report was that It Is possible to alter the
trends, and the sooner we begin, the greater ou^- possibilities for
success), the Image of the Club's findings was sufficiently
pessimistic to justify the development of a text which would seek to
correct this Image. Therefore, the U.S. Association for the Club ot
Rome prepared a text called "Making It Happen: A Positive Guide to the
Futire." This text proposes to offer an environmental emphasis with
optimistic conclusions: In the words of one of Its contributors,
Donella Meadows, a belief that "there Is a wonderful world possible,
one In which each person's needs are met, amply, elegantly, and
susta1nably...we see that world fo:.T.1ng already. In sfrall pockets
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everywhere." In this and other, reore recent, environmentally-oriented
materials, the focus Is on shifting to styles of life which are
conslstert with the progress toward a sustainable world.
A number of materials are also appearing which emphasize global
connectedness, with particular stress on developments In the "third
world." Among the best of these are the materials prepared by the
British Centre for World Development Education, located In London.
This agency has prepared a number of classroom games* slides, and
other visuals and also has a monthly newsletter, oriented toward
classroom use. A consideration of some of these materials was
Included In the presentation*
As previously stated, It Is proposed that the most convlete course
In the study of the future will Include elements from all three of
these emphases. Recent efforts to produce such courses. Include this
summer's Governor's School courses for gifted 5nd talented pupils. In
New Jersey and In Virginia, which have attempted to develop just such
a total perspective. Materials from these courses was also presented.
IX. I. lozzl, Louis A. "Sclence-Techno logy-Society. Dealing with
ConfMct Issues In Elementary and Secondary Schools."
Associate Professor of Science and Environmental Education,
Cook College - Rutgers University, P.O. Box 231, Mew Brunswick.
New Jersey 0d903, USA.
The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) recently adopted
a major policy statement which concluded that "the goals of science
education during the 1980s Is to develop scientifically literate
Individuals who understand how science, technology and society
Influence one another and who are able to use this knowledge In their
everyday decision-making." Thr NSTA recommended a minimum of 15
percent of science Instruction at the middle/Junior high school level
and "20 percent" at the high school level be directed toward science
related societal Issues.
While science and environmental educators have enthusiastically
endorsed this new policy position, they have also expressed concern
over what appears to be a widespread lack of qu'jllty curriculum
materials and/or expertise in the science education community to deal
effectively with such Issues In our nation's classrooms. This
presentation, therefore, was designed to:
1. present "proven effective" strategies for dealing with
sclence-techologv-soclety Issues In elementary and secondary
school science, social studies, and environmental education
programs, and
2. to briefly describe a U.S. Department of Education endorsed
proqram currently available for adoption/adaption In a variety
of existing programs for yrades 7-12.
This presentation Included activities and "hand outs" to guide
participants In utilizing these strategies to develop their own
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materials and/or to adapt/adopt existing materials conwerclany
available at low cost.
IX. J. Kumar, B.M. "Environmental Education as an Integrating Concept
In the school Curriculum." Unity Village, East Coast,
Oemerara, Guyana.
SUMMARY
Environmental education serves as an Integrating concept In the
school curriculum generally. Three major stages can be distinguished-
1. Teaching from the environment;
2. Teaching about the environment;
3. Teaching for the environment and the emphasis In primary,
secondary and tertiary levels can correspond to these stages.
A curriculum based on the environment Is integrated; field
studies, pollution, conservation, pesticides and wildlife are
Important In education.
INTRODUCTION
Education Is a developing process In which change approaches,
methods, curricula and teaching aids are always taking place The
constantly Increasing knowledge and understanding of science and
technology and the new patterns of human life which they entail make
change essential In the education of children, students and adults
Today educational Innovations are expressions of efforts towards more
social relevanc* and of attempts to bring environmental education
closer to real life and Its needs. This pragmatic view reflects an
educational pol'cy bated on a scientific approach to the world, an
approach which wiust form part of any envlronratntal education programme.
It Is clear that environmental education offers an Ideal
Integrating concept for education generally involving ma.iy approaches
- conceptual. Inquiry, relevance and process. Some general objectives
of environmental education are:
1. Involves actual participation In the teaching process:
2. Aids In the training of a critical mind;
3. Helps In the practical application of theoretical knowledge;
J- Helps In education towards problem solving and decision-making:
5. Lends Itself to Integrated presentation.
W HAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL FDUCATTON
Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and
clarifying concepts In ord>r to develop skills and attitudes necessary
to understand and appreciate the Interrelatedness among man, his
culture and his biophysical surroundings. Environmental education
also entails practical practice In decision-making and
self-formulatv of a code of behaviour (Policy) about Issues
concernlrg env^ omental quality.
The 'environmental crisis' has been bringing conservationists and
educationalists together. The expression 'crisis presents a
disturbing state of the human environment, especially the natural one.
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as It Implies a need for urgent, national, worldwide actions of
conservation, Improvecient and wise Mnagement. Even authorities,
organizations and Individuals who <l1d not care much In the
not-too-distant past, are now committing themselves to the cause of
environmental education. In some countries, national bodies for
environmental education are set up; national legislation Is made;
environmental education acts are passed; environmental education
centres are built up and thus MAB has an extremely vital role to play.
International organisations, both goverrimental and
non-governmental, are also heavily Involved In the stimulation and
promotion of environmental education. At the Stockholm Conference In
June 1972 came out -
"The essentially Interdisciplinary, humanistic ethical aspects of
environmental education - the science of ecology, planetary
loyalty, respect for life, care for others and lack of all
rapacity - should be stressed at every l^vel of education and mass
communication, so that all people develop a primary love for their
fellow human beings and for their native planet*"
In December 1972, the European working conference on Environmental
Conservation Education put forward:
"Whereas environmental conservation education, under present
circumstances of Increased Impact of man on the natural
environment, has become a matter of urgent Importance In all
countries;
and
Whereas we recognize the aim of this education Is to create a
responsible attitude among the entire population towards the use
and care of natural resources, and the protection of the
environment as a whole against damage from pollution and other
dangers."
This group reached the consensus that the Implementation of
environmental education and conservation education should Include the
following activities -
- appropriate education and Instruction In school courses at all
levels;
- education and training In environmental matters in Institutes
of higher education of all kinds;
- out-of-school Involvement of young people and adults In
practical environmental education and conservation activities;
' in-service education and training of teachers and others
concerned with general and out of school education such as
youth leaders;
- the training of professional people concerned with
environmental affairs such as statesmen and administrators, as
well as planners, architect!., engineers, and technologists;
- the education of the public at large by the use of mass
information media and other methods;
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Teaching from the
Environment
Environmental Education
Nursery
Primary
Secondary
Levels
(A) OBJECTIVES
Themes
Teaching about
the Environment
Teaching for
the Environment
Basic stage in the
development of
programs
- Study specific topic
to gain Information
(data)
- Teaching tries
to tell how
right, wrong,
human Inter-
fererence has
been
Emphasize open-ended
environmental work
(no Syllabus)
Done 1n and out of
classroom
Where
conservation
and
environmental
education?
Investigate and enquiry
Field studies -
first hand experience,
make conclusions
Interelatlon and
interaction
Learning materials
Interdisciplinary
feature of programroe
Applied science
experts
Recreational and
aesthetic values -
link programme
wl^h humanity
Interrelationships In
ecosystems between
living things and
between them and their
physical environment,
and there Is the Irrpact
of man on the natural
environment what can
happen a$ o result of
his activities.
- Problem
solving
- Conservation
Is understood
as "wise
use and
management"
- Curriculum
- Evaluation
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265
I. An Environmentally Oriented Curriculum
A. Categories of Concepts:
1 .
Land forms, soils and minerals
2.
Atmosphere and Cosmos
3.
Social organizations
4.
Aesthetics, ethics, language
5.
Economics
6.
Area and location
7.
Plants and animals
8.
Water
9.
People
B. Coordination between existing subjects
1. Biology Incorporation
2. Connection between school education and real life In
formulating a correct attitude towards the natural
environment* The above view Is shared by many industrial
decision-makers, engineers and other specialists.
3. Environmental education cannot be taught as a discreet
subject. It Is more of an approach, a 'synthesizing concept.'
The syllabus content Is Important as well as the method and
approach, with the objective of establishing a learning
situation concerned with principles, concepts, attitudes,
values and skills rather than mere factual content.
II. Environmental Integrating Concept Implementation In Curriculum
Design
1. Environmental topics - contents, objectives, cooperation
2. Identification of various topics to be related to the
environment In and between different subject - correlation
3. Environmental Education In the curriculum text books,
leacher's Guide, work books.
A. Interrelating Courses
1. Integrated course - revolving around major topics Involving
environmental concepts - to give a variety of lecture;
Inte'^relatlon and Interdependence of all components and about
nature's severe responses to the arbitrary violation of Its
laws by man.
2. Major themes and biosphere approach - give a global
environmental awareness.
3. Comprehensive Syllabus - 4 Sections
(a) Processes and systems of the natural environment and the
Limits of the Resources;
(b) The ecosystem;
(c) The Interaction of man and the environment;
(t.) Environmental pressures and planning - a field study.
B. Methods^ Forms and Facilities
1. Combining environmental education In the school curriculum
requires Innovative methods - field studies;
out-door activities
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regular observations
"for every school should have suitable nature study areas
attachec to 1t or wUh1n easy access, and that, 1n che
development of new schools, specific provision for such
facilities be Incorporated at the planning stage"
school garden
national science service groups
out of school activities
Conclusion
Other components of environmental education
teacher training
out of school education
Integration In other areas
The concept of environmental education, conservation of nature and
natural resources should merit recognition in a permanent role as a
coordinator of the curriculum In our schools. Moreover, for teachers,
educators and decision makers to defer for much longer the acceptance
and simplification of environmental education as a basic requirement
for all pupils could be tantamount to committing suicide, because the
loss of the natural environment of this world for generations to cone
Is unlikely to be replaced by acceptable environments on the moon o\
on mass.
IX. K. Lefkos, Pattl. "Granville Island Curriculum Resource 3ook
and video". Board of School Trustees of Vancouver School
District, 4236 Garden Grove Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia
V5G 4E6, Canada.
The Vancouver School Board produced teacher resource material for
Granville Island, a unique site in Vancouver made up of restaurants,
theatres, a public market, art galleries, a maritime market and
various Industries. This session presented an overview of the
Curriculum Resource Book — a good model for any urban studies unit.
Suggestions for pre-trip, on-site, and post-trip activities were
stressed as well as various evaluation techniques and formats.
Several timeline activities ard gameboard instructions were Included.
The Granville Island Video was shown.
IX. L. L1pka, Jerry. "Environmental Education Alaskan Style: The
Bristol Bay Curriculum Project". Assistant Professor.
University of Alaska, Box 10206, Dillingham, Alaska 99576,
USA.
Native peoples of rural Aliska today are caught In a complex and
Interestl.i^ Intermingling of life-styles. Traditional values,
28[)
267
customs, and a subsistence economy combine with modern conveniences,
technology and membership In multi-million dollar Native Corporations
to ;rike up the fabric of life. Life In rural Alaska takes place In
villages which are w\<le1y separated due to vast distances, natural
physical boundaries, a^^d the lack of a road system* Alaska, unlike
the lower 48 and third world countries. Is not yet at the point where
problems of pollution, depletion, and population are the critical
environmental concerns, although, of course, specific Instances of
each of these can be found. Instead Native people \n rural Alaska
found environmental problems In terms of possible impacts on their
subsistence and commercial use of local fish and game resources. The
land remains fundamental to life In the north; It provides physical
and spiritual sustenance* The people are directly tied to the land
for their cultural survival.
The rural Alaska scene Is today rapidly changing, as H has since
CO. ict with Europeans. Technological and cultural Innovations are
coRmonplace, for example adopting the snowmobile tor hunting
purposes. The passage of the landmark federal legislation called the
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) In 1971 quickened and
altered the pace of change. This law partially extinguishes aboriginal
rights by arranging for a land and cash settleme t of 40 million acres
and $962.5 million. ANCSA also established Regional Native
Corporations, thirteen In all, to manage the land and cash. This
creation of profit making Native Corporations has substantially
altered the age-old ways of surviving off the land to Include, at
least presently, corporate profit.
There are currently strong pressures for development, both
external and Internal, as a response to the profit potential of
Alaska's vast natural resources. Fo'* Instance, ANCSA mandates the
Native Corporation to make profits; developing natural refources Is
one means of accomplishing this. However, these developments
Invariably put Increased pressure on the vast environment and fragile
ecosystems which are necessary to the continuance of a subsistence way
of life. These often conflicting factors - development, environment,
and culture - are all part of che unique set of circumstances which
shape rural Alaska.
It ^Itnln this total environment that many challenges are
presented to envlronmcr^al education, primarily the need to adapt to a
context which the environment Is of fundamental concern to the
people or reasons of cultural survival. International environmental
educators for some time have been calling for an Intermixing of
economic development and environmental concerns In environmental
education. In rural Alaska concerns about subsistence. Native
sovereignty, and Native Corporations must also be considered.
Otherwise, 1nq(>orted views of environmental education or r,mited
environmental perspectives and solutions may neglect and offend local
people. This paper describes Oiie curriculum development project which
integrates Issues of development, environment, a d culture by using
vital regional problems as a learning opportunity and course content.
The following case Information on a curriculum project In the 8r*,stol
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268
Bay region of Alaska shou^:: prove applicable to others In developing
countries or cr .ss-cuUural contexts. Nore generally, this example
should be useful tj those Involved in developing Issue-oriented
environmental education programs.
The Bristol Bay Curriculum Project Is an on-going high school
currKul'im development project sponsored by the University of Alaska
In cooperation with three ;-cliool districts and ten Native
communities. Bristol Bay is located 350 miles sout>«wsst of Anchorage;
It Is comprised of 26 villages, the PMjorlty of which are populated by
Alaska Natives; Yuplk Eiklmo, Aleut, and Athabascan. It's S.DOO
Inhabitants are scattered over an area tfce slie of the state of Ohio
The majority are Involved a mixed cash and subsistence economy.
This vast wilderness area supports the largest red salmon fishery In
the world, and other rich natural resources Including caribou, moose,
walrus, oil and gas, and minerals.
Developing an appropriate curriculum for hljh school students In
Bristol Bay called for an open approach that would allow for the
gathering of Informatlr^n from diverse Interests: developers. Native
Corporations, environmentalists, state and federal agencies, and
village communities. A three phased approach to curriculum
development was designed. As the intent of this approach was to
formulate curriculum that responded to felt needs of the region. It
had to maintain flexibility to change, reflecting both political
Changes In the regio** and the curriculum developers* Increasingly
deeper understanding of local concerns. Simultaneously the project
1f«:elf becian to create changes In those publicly debated issues
through student Involvement In on-going regional debate.
The first phase, utilizing an ethnographic approach, was
particularly Important since It transformed the curriculum. Initially
the project was conceived as emphasizing environmental concerns raised
by various developmental plans, and their potential impacts on
subsistence. The project's original goal was to Inform and Involve
youth In tlie public debate on these plans. But our ethnographic data
collected from more than ten villages disclosed that ANCSA-related
Issues needed to be addressed as well. After appn^xlmately one ^ sar
of data collection from community groups, and state and federal
agencies, a more holistic curriculum was designed which addressed
usues of ANCSA, land and development.
The second phase, curriculum design and Implementation, placed
Important emphasis on the matching of In-classroom activities to
regional events. Students had the opportunity to participate in a
series of regional and state-wide meetings concerned wHh ANCSA,
development, and environment. One such svent, a region-wide youth
conference, was a response to requests from students and cowinl ttees .
students, teachers, NatWe Association and Corporation members, and
diverse developmental and environmental Interests participated In the
conference. The students not only learned about the Issues buc they
also shaped, however slightly, the public debate. The curriculum, by
being tlecl to on-going regional conferences and meetings became part
of a larger political process. In addition, tM^iirriculum is slowly
^69
adapting to regional differences In attitudes, language, school size,
and local problems and concerns by designing flexibility Into the
curriculum content and process for each village school.
The third phas formative evaluation, has begun to direct us to
more fundamental questions uncSerlylng the dynamic Interplay between
Native Corporations, the environment* and development. Issues of
politics (Native sovereignty). Identity, and economics are of deep
concern to students and community members. Oa^ provided by students
at the youth conference suggested the tmportance of Involving students
In many phases of the project^ making them feel that they have
"ownership** In the curriculum, and connecting them to potential
leaders. The curriculum continues adapting by Including grassroots
community concerns ^nd by being open tc feedback from students,
teachers, and diverse developmental and Native Interests. The
project's vitality comes from Its timeliness. Its process of
responding to deeply felt regional Issues and Its cooperative spirit.
In summary, the Bristol Bay Curriculum Project has transformed
Itself from an environmental curriculum to a more holistic curriculum
fitted to and contributing to the Bristol Bay region. By utilizing an
ethnographic approach to data collection and an open approach to
curriculum development, environmental education Alaskan style Includes
development, environment, and culture. The curriculum process of
Involving students In publicly debated regional Issues matched with
In-classroom curriculum contributes to a dynacnic Interplay bett*een
school and community which Is so Important In small homogenous
communities. What Is learned In the classroom Is applicable to the
larger community and visa-versa. Youth are learning skills necessary
to them as potential leaders In the region and the corporation.
Developmental Issues and their environmental Impacts are of greater
concern to youth and adults when they are viewtd In a local frame of
reference. Environmental education Aieskan style Is still evo^vln,
as learn more about the Interrelationship of these Issues In the
context of a chcingl^.j trvlronment.
IX. M. Lubbers, Oames 0. "Envl onmenta Education Is Conspicuously
Missing". Assistant Professor ot Science Education, SUNY
College at Fredonla. fredonia. New Yoik, 14063, USA.
The recent report from the National Science Foundation, Educating
Americans for the 21st Century > Is a plan of action for ".., Improving
mathematics, science and technology education for all American
elementary and secondary stud'^nts so that their achievement Is the
best In the world by 1995." Conspicuously missing from this report Is
any mention of environmental f.ducatlon except as It can be related to
biology or technolo gy education. Fitting environmental education (EE)
into the curriculum has been a continual and difficult problem, but in
this report it is particularly relevant to issues presented in
technology education.
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Also, several national organizations are documented In the report,
but NAAEE Is not among them. NAAEE has a lesponslblllty, not only to
support the objectives of the NSF report, but also to make known Its
owT, objectives for the future. This approach could also provide a
framfework for the future concerns of the Association.
The report Is largely a response to a recognized need for
Improvement In skills and knowledge related to the Increasingly
technical nature of society. Computers, of course, are the major
Influence, having been compared to the written word and books as a
revolutionary agent of change In connunl cations and educ*:.1on. There
Is no question about the need, particularly In math and science
education, for people to adapt to this trend. The third component
emphasized In this report (NSF, 1983), exam^nts the neetf for
technology education to provide the fundamental understandings
concerned with "technological Innovation, the productivity of
technology, the Impacts of the products of technology on the quality
of life, and the need for critical evaluation of societal matter:
Involving the consequences of technology."
In addition to the NSF report, many other organizations have
offered similar statements of the need for technological literacy
(AATE. 1983; ASCO, 83'84; ASE, 1981; ATE, 83/84; BSCS, 1984; NSTA,
1982). This Is clearly a trend that will mushroom through the next
feu years, and the Implications for EE are quite obvlou:. A major
goal A F.E Is to Increase the knowledge and awarensss of the Impacts
that humans— through technology— have on the environment, and to
translate this sensitivity Into a rational decision making process
which minimizes such Impacts. Throughout the relatively brief history
of environmental education. It has often been confusod with outdoor
education, conservation education, and/or nature study, it has become
part of bloljoy education, has evolved into environmental science
courses, and has been incorporated Into many disciplines, most notably
In science an- social studies. It Is pervasive, difficult tv,
pigeonhole, and It relates to virtually every aspect of education, but
It will never disappear. Since It Is often under the guise of some
other concern, people do not usually realize the fundamental
ecological or environmental issues Involved until after the fact or
unless the concern afTects "birds bunnies' or themselves
directly. Technology educctlon may provide the mo' : logical
connection yet for l£ becast- at least som« of the goals are In coiwion
and ;ome of the most fund-niental Issues aro the same. For example, 1n
ScVe.ice In Socjetjf (ASE, 1981), one of several new programs In
Sc'fcrico/lechnology/Soc'.ety (STS). the alms of the project ara a
combination of both scientific and environmental concerns:
1. To understand the nature and limitations of scientific
knowledge.
• To appreciate that the use of scientific knowledge can be
both beneficial and detrlmenta' to society and the
environment.
3. To appreciate that the Earl s resources are finite.
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271
4. To understand the need for, and to develop the ability to
make reasoned decisions which take account of all relevant
constraints; and to recognize that moral considerations are
involved in making decisions.
It is easy to see the overlap with EE in objectives such as
these. Similar objectives were offered by Lubbers (1981b), and In
many of the recent statements Issued by national teachers and science
organizations, the concern for negative Impacts of technology is an
integral part of technology education.
The trend toward technological literacy can be 1nter;preted two
different ways. A somewhat limited view Is more precisely termed
"computer literacy" where the emphasis Is on being able to function in
a high tech society. From "ecology,", a more encompassing view of
technological literacy Involves the ability to not only be able to
function in such a society, but also to cope with the on-going change
and to understand the development and structure of our not-so-natural
technological system. It Is this second and more broadly Interpreted
conception of technological literacy that U Important as a general
understanding by the public and as a vehicle for increased
environmental awareness. Also, it should be noted that technical
expertise and literacy, with computers or machines In general, is
desirable as well but it may not be within the grasp of everyone and
it may not provide the balance of perspectives essential to
understanding the role of technology In society.
It can also be argued that technological literacy is a product or
synthesis of both scientific and environmental literacy (Lubbers,
1981a). The role of technology in society obviously includes both
positive and negative impacts. In a traditional sense, the scientific
community (ana by implication science education) has promoted and
supported technology. I.e., the "appll rations of science,' whereas the
major outc;^me of the environmental movement (and environmental
education) has been to question the negative impacts of such
applications for their actions. Technology education Is a more
objective approach because both the benefits and cost/risks are
examined. EE has incorporated this approach to some extent but
technology education has an inherently more neutral stance, and like
E£ in the 70s, is now being recognized by the general public*
Top'-down problems may best be solved by bottom-up or "grass-roots"
types of approaches. The public is asking for the atility to
understand and cope with the rate of change In toddy's society. EE
shoijld not only be given some credit for the trend towurc technology
education, but should alsc cap1*:alize on the opportunities for helping
people understand the "nature" ov our technological society.
REFERENCES
American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE). Yff,
J. and R. Butler, M.J. Technological Literacy; Challenge for Teacher
Education. ERIC Clearin:ihouse on Teacher Education, February, 1983
{No. SP 021 725).
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272
Assorlatlon for Supsi^vlslon and Curriculum Development (ASCO).
Educational LeadershlD. Vol 41, No. 4. Dec. 83/Jan. 84. (Issue
devoted to Mathematical and Scientific Literacy for the High Tech
Society.)
Association for Science Education (ASE). Science In Society
(teacher's guide), 1981. John L. Lewis, Project Director.
Association of Teacher Educators (ATE). Action In Teacher Educ ation
1983-84, 5(4). — *-
Blologica' sciences Curriculum study (BSCS). Science. Technology, and
|9Cletv J 984. (Innovations: The Social Consequences of Science and
Technology Program).
Lubbers, J.D. SET L1*»-acy: "A Goal for the Perplexed." Current
Issues In Environments Education and rny^ronwental S tudies. VJI
1981, !*5-93.
Li.iers, j.n. "The Role of Technology In Society: Implications for
Scler.re Edu»at1on," The Hoosler Science Teacher. 1981 VII (2) 54-58(5)
National Science Foundation (NSF). Educitlng Americans for the ?lst
Ce"t"ry. September. 1983. (The Natio .dl Science Board Coiwnlsslon on
PreCollege Education In Nathem^tUs, Science and Technology.)
National Science Teac^ers AssocUtloft (NSTA) . Search for Excellence
In Science Education, 1982.
IX. N. Hlckelson, Bells Heffner; Janet Ady and Peggy Cowan
"Alaskan Environmental Education Strategies." Asst.
Professor, University of Alaska, Box 325, Cordova. Alaska
9S574, USA.; Visual Information/Environmental Educo^ion
Specialist. U.S. Fish S, Wildlife Service. Anchorage Regional
Offl'.e, 1011 East Tudor, Anchorage, Alaska 99503, USA.
Alaskan environmental education efforts must overcoTie great
dista— IS, teacher transclence, teacher Mnfarolllarlty with AU kan
ecology and peoples, teacher hesitancy toward using coro..iurUy and
field experiences and lacJc of knowledge or outdoor survival skills.
S11<i9s presented i variety of Alaskan environmental education
approaches. Participants discussed new options for environmental
education In Alaska. A variety of "hands on" activities and handouts
were avallible Including wildlife games, seaweed and sand samples,
wetlands .'ctlvltles, walrus puppets, community In sea
shanties and Alasksn seafood.
P.7S
273
IX. 0. Phinips, Hugh C. "Energize Your Curriculum: 1 to 6."
Program Director, Society, Environment and Energy Development
Studies Foundation, #440 10169-104 Street. Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada T5J 1A5.
This participatory, hands-on workshop Illustrated the use and
1mp1er»ntat1on of energy/environmental materials In your elementary
classroom. The S.E.E.D.S. (Society, Environment and Energy
Developnirnt Studies) 1 to 6 Energy Literacy Scries ya$ featured*
Complimentary SEEDS posters with teacher's guide, SEEDS provincial
field trip guldrs, the SEEDS energy/environment blbMrgraphy and SEEDS
newsletter was available.
IX. P. Phillips, Hugh C. "tnergUe Your Curriculum: 1 to 12. •
Program Director, Society, Environment and Energy Development
Studies Foundation, #440 10169-104 Street, Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada T5J 1A5.
This participatory, hand^-on workshop Illustrated the use and
Implementation of energy/onvlronmental materials In your elementary
classroom. The S.E.E^O.S. (Society, Environment ar-d Energy
Development btudles) 7 to 12 Energy Literacy Series was featured.
Complimentary SEEDS posters with teacherS guide, SEEDS provincial
field tr'.p guides, t^ie SEEDS energy/environment bibliography and SEEPS
newsletter was available.
IX. Q. Phillips, Hugh C. "HughUras for Interpreting our Naturdl
World." Program Director, Society, Environment and Energy
Development Studies Fonndailon, #440 10169-104 Street,
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T5J 1A5.
Tills participatory session outlined techniques, tea^Mng ideas and
resources In the Interpretation of our environment. The session
Included practical ^nd timely ''Hughlsms" In developing your competence
and confidence.
IX. R Richards, Don. "Environmental Education 1- Practice: Across
. School Curriculum". Principal, Treverton M.pdratory
School, Private Bag 505, Mool ^Iver, Natal 3300, Republic of
South Africa.
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IWTRODUCTnN
Education's function should bt to educate all sectors of mankind
to understand the total environment so that not only does mankind
benefit from It, but that the total environment remains a stable
productive factor. :n fact, a symbiotic Inter-relatlonship which Is
mutuallstlc.
What we are looking «t here Is the survival of both man and his
environment. San depends entirely on his environment. The
environment can do without man but can also be totally deftroyed by
man.
Two r»$pon?P? K»on to sugs*st tkie mountlnn interest in
Environmental Education. These are:
The current concern with the problem of cities - the built
environment that Is becoiring Increasingly Inadequate as a concept for
living. Population density. Inner-city decay, pollution, alienation,
and moral decline are some of the environmental and psychological
stresses to which urban iiMin is subjected.
We cannot divorce our man-made environment from the natural
environment, nor man from his natural world. Thus our second
awareness concerns the natural world. Nan Is effectively polluting
and depleting the natural resources of his world, the envlronfiferit he
cannot be separated from. Han Is causing a vanishing wildlife and a
threat of ecological disaster. If man Is to Itve In har.aony with the
natural order of things, and lispire his deeper self, he needs to find
a bette" balance between the Integrity of his envlroiwient and Us
destructive exploitation. Indeed there Is a concern sweeping the
world today which recognises that mankind can no longer have a free
ride at the expense of the earth's resources.
If we are to Interpret the creation of this world from Genesis we
can see that God provides a garden - an ordered and Planned
arrangement of living things - for man's needs and enjoyment.
In this garden, man was set not to Indulge himself, but to till It
and care for It. Calvin's comments on this are most appropriate 'the
earth was given to man. with this condition, that he should occupy
himself In Its cultivation The custody of the garden was
given to Adam, to show that we possess the things which God has
ccimltted to our hands, on the condition, that being content with
frugal and if^'Jerate use, we should take care of what «>hall remain.
Let everyone regard himself as the steward of God We all know
what happened to Adam and man has been on a steady decline since. God
^mands that wise stewardship of us and we either obey or disobey God.
fown and urban study programs, environmental and conservation
awareness prograiwnes and a multitude of symposia on world
environmental problems and on environmental education testify to the
urgency with which we seek a more empirical analysis of the
relationship between the behaviour of man and his complete environment.
The writer believes that children must be Introduced into the
concept of the environment, imjst be exposed to the environment as soon
as possible.
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275
Palget, the noted child psyc*^o1og1st and researcher, maintains
that from about the age of eleven years , children begin to be able
to evaluate the world around them without relying .on Information
gathered from concrete objects. According to Plaget, they are now
ready to begin learning abstractly. Children at this stage gradually
develop the capacity to reason through the use of hypotheses » When
given Information, they can start making logical deductions without
first turning to concrete examples*
Hence It 'Is reasonable to presume that children at the age of
eleven upwards would be the suitable age to Introduce to "envlroiment*
and Its role for the survival of mankind.
A BLUEPRINT THE TREVERTOW PttOSRWWE
Treverton Prepartory School In Mool River, liata>« embarked oi: «n
exciting educational venture by Introducing environmental studies
across the whole curriculum at the Standard five (grade 7) level In
1979. This method Involves tuition and practical work In all the
normal school subjects. Including science, geography, history,
mathematics, English, Afrikaans, art and religious Instruct' n in the
outdoors and then later In the classroom where the pupils consolidate
what they have learnt.
The central theme of the study Is the Mool River from Its source
In the Drakensberg Mountains to Its confluence with the Tugela River
and then down to the sea. The many varying ecological habitats and
systems provide Idbal subjects for study and comparison by the boys
and girls In the Stendard five classes. The study aroa also embraces
three major wllc'erness areas In Natal and Zululand.
The study area also contains two differing urban environments, the
seaport city of Durban and the small town of Nool River. Both of
these are used across the curriculum In urban studies.
The class spends an average of five days away In the field at each
study area, using the environment there, rural or urban, to cover all
subjects normally taught ^n the classroom. As environmental studies
Is an inter-subJect discipline, suffice to say that when a cUss goes
out Into the field to study the basic history of the area, the
students will at the same time be exposed to science, geography,
r^thematlcs, the languages, art and physical training there.
Once In the study area, the class Is usually divided Into groups.
Each group concentrates on a specific research of the study although
they wVl be exposed to the whole. On return to school, the class
complefes a two week consolidation period which Is Interwoven Into
normal school subjects. During this time, the pupils prepare projects
and group teach-backs on thd results of their research.
This environmental approach to education Is a scholastic one which
enables boys and girls to stud> and learn through re£l-11fe
situations, backed up bv nonnal teaching practices. As they get to
grips with the environment whether wilderness or urban, they discover
their place In It and their responsibility to It.
Ten study ;::reas are researched each year. These are:-
1. The school and Its environment
2. The Giants Castle Game Reserve - a study of the Drakensberg
Bushman.
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3. Noo1 River town - an urban survey
4. The Kamberg area - study of the sources of che Hool river and
Its surrounds.
5. Zululand - a study of the culture and history of the Zulu
people plus bushveld ecology and estuarinf ecology.
6. Rosetta - a study of the upper middle Mool river and Us
environs. Here a comparative study Is made between the river
and a dam.
7. A study of Durban - early history of Natal, the early
settlers, settlement geography, a studjr of the coas^: and the
sea. Including fish and the docks uf Durban.
8. A study of Pletermarltzburg, capital of Natal.
9. A study of the Nool River falls.
10. A farm study.
Comparison of all study areas Is made and conclusions are dr/iwn up.
Although each study area Is covered Inter-currlcularly, for the
purpose of this presentation, six study areas will be covered by the
pupils sharing the platform today and each study area will be
approached from a specific discipline. From these report backs by the
student you will be able to glean some Idea cf what the children have
learned during the year and the extend of their Involvement.
Each student has written their own paper and produced their own
overhead transparancles tc be able to give you some Idea of the
academic depth of the programs and to give you a sample of one of the
procedures used In the classroom, namely the teach back.
CONCLUSION
During this year of total Involvement In the environment, the
children emerge as young people whose attltud^^s and values hav:i
changed. They have not only received a true education, but I'ave
become caring people, caring for others, for their environment and for
the wilderness they have grown to love.
We have to look to the future and we believe t;iat this form of
education Immerses the student mentally, physically and spiritually,
building up his Confidence to meet demands and to solve problems. The
students gain a deeper understanding of man's dependence on his
environment and his environment to It as the custodian of God's
creation. Our young people hold our planet earth In their hands.
IX. R.l Johsson, Caroline. "How We Cu/er Mathematics''. Se anth Grade
Stujent, Treverton Preparatory School, Private Bag 505, Wool
River, Na'^al 3300, Republic of South Africa.
IN TRODUCTION
I win now tell you how we cover the mathematics syllabus In the
Standard 5 environmental year. Whatever we are taught In the field Is
then applied to classroom work. For example, having completed the
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study of ar area In the field by measuring playing fields and swimming
pools, consolidation Is carried oyt In the classroom, using the
necessary text books. Furlhermore we can understand the different
math problems as we are faced with them In real life situations.
Nevertheless the entire math syllabus Is also covered In the classroom.
For this talk I am concentrating on only on3 of our stu^y o^eas,
and that Is of the school. The class Is divided Into flvt* grou';s,
each group 1$ given a certain task*
GROUP (Hi£ Is given the task of measuring an thi buildings In the
school grounds, they also have to note the building materials used and
the colours of th3 buildings. In the meantime* 6RQUP IW l measures all
the playing fields Including the swimming ^ool. They also measure the
width and length of roads In the complex and the dlstan^te between the
buildings. From this Information, the two groups get to^et^er and
draw a scale pUj of the school and Its grounds.
Using a theodolite, GROUP THREE have worked out gradients a»id
contours and are thus able to furnish further Information ^or groups 1
and 2.
GROUP FOUR'S task Is to make a count of all the trees, esi*.wte
their heights and to plot the trees on a sketch map of the school
grounds.
GROUP FIVE has Ihe task of setting up four blrd-^vlewlng stations
In the school ground?;, making bird counts and plotting their movements.
From all the Inforinatlon produced by the five groups, the class
constructs a scale model of the school and Its grounds during art
periods.
Each group had further mathematical tasks to perform In this study.
GROUP ONE had to Interview the school caterers and from this
Information construct bar graphs of the different foods used In the
school on a dally and monthly basis.
GROUP TWO had to find out how the swimming filter operates, to
draw the system and to work out amounts of chlorine and acid used
during the study period.
GROUP THREE hacJ the additional task of maintaining a weather
station and from the recorded data to produce graphs of maximum and
minimum temperatures, rainfall and atmospheric pressures during the
study period. The group .also plotted litter found at the school, made
counts of the different types of litter and from tt^ recorden date,
drew pie graphs A litter -tree was then placc^d at tht entrance of the
school hall w^th a message to r:^1nd the scholars of their
responsibility to the environment.
GROUP FOUR*s main task during the survey was to obtain sell
samples from four different stations ^n the school grounds. Once
having obtained the readings of nitrogen, phosphe^'ous and potast,
graphs using a soil test kit were produced from the rc^^evant
Information. The group also Interviewed the school bursar, finding
out the school maintenance costs ano produced nraphs from these
figures.
Further graph wo?^?' involved the percentages of tie different tree
types found In the ^chuol grounds.
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GROUP FIVu had the task of counting the nuniber of different birds
of each species at each of the four stations. Three counts wer-e made
each day at the same cime during the week. After totalling, bar and
pie graphs were produced of dally counts and also total counts.
We also make use of our environmental centre at the school, which
actually houses our standard five classrooms. The centre has three
acres of land through which tvfo self-guided trails run. These are an
ecology trail and an estl-metre trail. The centre also contains a
soil-pit, a pond ecosystem, a weather station and a walk-In bird
aviary which also contains a reptile pit. A great deal of our
practical mathematics takes place In this Environmental Centre.
CONCLUSION
We are Involved with mathematics data and problem solving
throughout the y»ar In various study areas and I am sure that you can
see how much more meaningful mathematics can be by using the
environment. We certainly think so.
IX. R.2 Champklns, Aian. "An Urban Survey: A Geographical Study of
our Town - Mool River." Seventh Grade Stud&nt, Treverton
Preparatory School, Private Bag 505, Mool River, Natal 3300,
Republl of South Africa.
Many geographer's claim that geography 1j environmental sducatlcn.
Be as It may, settlement geography Is an extremely valid component of
environmental education. Our next speaker, Alan Champklns, will talk
on our 'Urban Survey' - a survey of the small town of Mool River.
Mool River Is situated In the midlands of Patal. Practically the
whole of this area Is approximately 1500 metres ab"ve sea level. The
average rainfall varies from 35 nm In the west to ?6 m In the east
per annum. The climate Is cool and bracing In Simter a!>d cold In the
winter months. The area around Mod River Is mainly sour vel^J which
means frhat the Indigenous redgrass (Themeda tricandra) loses Its
feeding value In the cold winter months. The couniry very
mountainous to the west and undulating to the east.
As part of our standard five year, we had as a .JdS"^, to 3»ai:t- n
geographical study of Mool River town, where Treverton i> sUudCid,
To accomplish chls the- class was dlv^aed Into five gruupi each
concentrating on a certain aspect. Theses f1v5 33n'»cts w^re:-
1. A study of communications
2. A survey of food Imported to ana -spcr^^'d frcsj Hooi River
3. A survey of the people of the town
4. A study of land use
5. An Investigation of pollution and & health survey.
I was Involved wtn the group wtilcn made * ^^uHy of
communications. To accospllsh tnU, we <t<id^e'J the raMw^y sjstem,
the pest office complex, which InvsNed ..ott, telephore and ielegraph,
all the garages and lastly a vehicle cer.suc.
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Two of our groups posted themselves at the railway station for
three mornings to note the number and destination of the trains.
Information was also gathered from the station master and It was thus
possible to work out what goods were being carried and to where. From
this information, our group was able to create flow-line maps once
back at school.
Whilst tnis was going on .the two other members of the group and I
were making a study of the Post Office In Nool River. We made a
survey of how many letters go out and come In on an average day.
Where to and where from. We also noted the range of stamps used In
the post office and In which proportion they were sold In an average
day.
An hour of each day during the first week was spent by two of our
group making a vehicle census of the vehicles entering and le«.v1ng
Mool River at a certain point* We noted whether they were heavy or
light vehicles or other, for (example, tractors. We also noted their
registration numbers. From this Information we were able to make
graphs representing the different vehicles.
The survey of the garages entailed finding out the number of
vehicles visiting them, the!r purpose - whether for petrol (gasoline)
or repair, the a!?K)unt of petrel sold on an average day and what sort
of repairs were oeing done. These calculations made the
Inter-relatlorishlps of maths and geography very meaningful for us.
During our second week of the survoy our group had the privilege
of actually working In the post office, taking turns In manning the
counter, the manual telephone exchange, and the telegraph office. We
also sorted the mall and Interviewed the Post Haster. On returning to
school we had co write up our findings end experiences which re:^ulted
1n a greater understanding of cur commiinlcatlon system.
Whilst completlnn this survey, the oth^.r groups were not Idle
eUher. Group two traced the orlg^r* of all food Imported Into ?loo1
RUer and who the manufacturer^ were. From this Information, flow
line maps and graphs were produced during consolidation back U
school. This group worked the local supermarket In their second
wpek, stocktaking, loading shelves, pricing goods, manning tills an^
working 1n the butche-^ shop.
Group three completed the most unenviable task of all - that of
completing a people survey. Asking people how old they wero, where
and when they were born, attracted some strange reactions, but brought
oui. some Interesting figures i/hen compiling graphs and flow line
iiwips. The Information was supported by checking past records from the
municipal offices and churches. Apart from population counts,
marriages, births and deaths were recorded from the be4;1nn1ng of Mool
RWer up to the present day. Graphs were also compiled from
Information gathered on occupations, ages^ popular names and schools.
Group four had the task of studying the land use In the town and
future town planning. They had to record the buildings In Bool River
and their functions. They also had to show on a map of the town where
aM the shops. Industries, resldentlel areas, etc. were situated.
They also hid to discuss future town planning with the Towri Clerk. To
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this end they were assisted when the whole class sat as a town council
In the actual municipal chambers for one morning and debated a problem
that wa thrown to us by the actual Town Clerk of Mool River,
Group four spent their second week working In a factory, namely
the cheese factory, actually making cheese and going through the whole
process from milk tc packed cheese.
During group five's pollution and health survey, they had to plot
and photograph sites of pollution and mismanagement In the town. They
also noted the state of drains, streets, gardens, shopping and
Industrial areas and the river, namely the Wool River, which runs
through the town. This group also recorded noise and air pollution
and collected san^les of water pollution. They calculated the
proportion of plastic, metal, paper, glass, etc. In each polluted
areas and presented Interesting graphs. Group five worked with the
Town Engineer during the second week, at the sewerage and water works
- collecting samples, analysing theta and learning how these Important
aspects of a town worked.
CONCLUSION
This geographical study of our town Nool River was not only
Interesting, but taught us how a town functions and hopefully, those
of us who have had the privilege of learning through the environmental
manner will be aware and educated regarding our urban environment and
will be conscious of the need for wise urban planning. We were not at
all happy with what we saw In our town and hope that our results,
delivered to the town council, will produce action.
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IX. R.3 Blaine, Sally. *A Study of the Drakensberg, with Special
Reference to the Bushmen.** Seventh Grade Student. Treverton
Preoarai-cry School, Private Bag 505, Mool River, Natal 3300,
Republic of South Africa.
.The ability to CMmynlcate Is probably the nost IfRportdnt asset
that any humar* being Is blessed with. From primltl'/e tribal days to
cur modern technological society, comnNinlcatlon between min and man,
country and country In the written or verbal foftm can extend man's
endeavours and strivings to higher peaks* tl5^1ng the EngTish language
a^' - 1c as her medium, Sally Blaine will speak on *h Study of the
Oraicensberg with special reference to the bushman.)
Kaa the Bushman iat at the entrance his sandstone cave, shaping
the rounded stone which he was making for his d*^aGit,g stick. Tomorrow
Kos, his wife, would use It to dig up the ant nest they had found down
1n the valley. Behind him the mountains were a br1c;ht splendour of
shimmering blue, topped with the massive face of iilgonv<Mteng, %^1ch In
tliw to come the whlt^ fi^ri would call C^thkln Peak. Belew film the
sunlight slept In the green valley-ind In the sky above, the gr^at
cloud caravans moved silently over an azure flaln. BeMnd hlRn. tos
his wife was preparing the bulbs and the roots they hab gathereo that
morning for the stewpot, while In the far corner ^onelb was busy
painting an orlbl on the wall of tne cave.
Ny task today Is to talk to you on how we utilize the environment
to study the Encllsh language. One can Imagine what effect the
surroundings have on pupils through personal experiences. I know what
the effect Is whilst sitting doing snlltalre, we can Imagine the
bushman living In harmony with the hills, mountains, summits and
stre^.tAS of the Drakensberg range, the highest mountains In Southern
Africa.
Don Richards w^Ote:
"on sunlit coves, and around fires In caves, little brown men
lived, hunting to eat, and enjoying the simple pleasures of life;
and they too were content."
bushmen average at approximately 135cm tall. The woman have
large buttocks and stomachs while the men are taller and sllmner.
Other characteristics of the bushmen are their high cheek bones and
flat noses. They are believed to have ;n1grated from Mongolia because
paintings similar to the ones In thp Orakensberg have been found
around the Medlteranean sea. The bushmen language Is a click language
which Is similar to the Hottentot lariuage. The Hottentots vere an
early race of Southern Africa.
We are able to study the English language on trips in the way that
wc have to give adjectives, adverbs and verbs describing our
surroundings and emotions. I will now ask you to take an Imaginary
journey Into the past when the hushmen still Inhabited the Orakensberg
range,
Kaa was one of the many Inhabitants of this beautiful area which
night was wrapping her cloak around. Kos, who had prepared the bu!bs
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for the stew, saw Kaang returning with the group rf young and more
experienced hunters. They had obviously been tracking eland because
they returned with a large eland ram. Son-elb saw then returning and
decided, to please their 6od. Kaggen. he would paint a picture of It
on the cave wall.
That evening they had a feast consisting of the day's hunt and
collection if roots and berries. The y^ung child of T8 nonths was
wrapped In a caross and put on an eland hide to prevent the cold
attacking It. Once the child was asleep they danced aroond the fire
to celebrate the successful bunt. After a rousing dance the old isan
of the tribe, Son-elb, started telling stories about a great hunt when
he had been younger. This was his first attenpt at hunting and a
successful one. He had hunted a giraffe and killed it. This had been
possible with assistance froa nore experienced. hunters. Kaang was
following close In his footsteps.
Let us take another Journey back Into the present day
Drakensberg. Where have the original Inhabitants gone? Why are they
no longer In existence?
EXTINCTION has struck their.. When the white and black men intruded
Into the Drakensberg they took over the grazing lands of the eland.
Th'jy also hunted out the eland. The bushmen were slowly starving so
they Mfit and hunted the cattle of these intruders. The Intruders
though; th^s unjust and hunting parties were sent out to hunt them.
THE 0RAKENSCER6 HAS LOST THESE WONDERFUL PEOPLE AND APART FROM THEIR
PAINTINGS THEY SHALL NEVER BE FOUND AGAIN. It seems unjust that su ^
a harmonlus people should end so tragically. Their extinction Is our
loss.
IX. R,4 Hurry, Nicola. "Science Section - The Mool River". Seventh
Grade Student, Treverton Preparatory School, Private Bag 505,
Moil River, Natal 3300, Republic of South Africa.
(The Mool River, as mentioned. Is the central theme of our year's
study. Nicola Hurry will now present 'A scientific study of the
river'. As you listen, you will be av<are that science, mathematics
and geography have no harriers here.)
■NTRODUCTION
The Mool river (the beautiful river) rises In the Highmoor area
close to ♦^he Giants Castle peak. In the Natal Drakensberg. It
meanders slowly down through the foothills of the Drakensberg. passing
througn the town of Mool River. *.he hoifle of our school.
Approximately 12 km upstream from Mool River town the Moo1 river
Is Joined by the Little Mori. This Is good farming country with crops
such as hay. potatoes and malie being grown. There Is also horse
studs and dairy farms.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE DRAKENSBERG CATCHMENT AREA
The Mool r1vtr Is part of the Drakensberg catchment arsa. Water
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from this area 1s used by towns and farms In iwny parts of Natal.
Cities such as Durban and Pletermarltzburg use water which comes frovp
the Drakensberg, and many Irrigation schemes rely on Orakensberg
rivers for their water supplies.
THE HOOI RIVER WATER CYCLE
The eastern escarpment of the Natal Orakensberg Is one of the
higricst rainfall areas In South Africa. Some parts of these mountains
receive 1, 500 mm of rain* Of this snow and mist contribute about 500
m per year.
Because of the warm Mozambique current that washes the shores of
Natal, the eastern seaboard and Interior experiences high relle?
rainfall. Warm winds sweep liiland from the east, carrying evaporated
moisture from the Indian ocean* They are forced upward by the land,
they cool, clouds form and rain or snow results.
The movement of moisture from the Indian ocean towards the
mountains and then back again to the Indian ocean Is a perfect example
of a water cycle.
OUR SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE WOOI RIVER
In order to get a good Idea of the Moo1 River basin, we studied a
number of different aspects. I will mention some of them to give
examples of the work we did:
1. One of the things we studied was the wild temperate forest
that grows on the cool, moist slopes of the Orakensberg. It
Is Important to conserve forests In order to conserve water
supplies. Not everybody realises this. In places farmers
have cleared the vegetation and planted crops right to the
river bank. As the crops can't hold the soil as well as the
natural vegetation many of the banks have collapsed and parts
the river have silted up. (I might say that this happens
respite laws which state that It Is illegal to plant crops
within 30 metres of the river banks).
2. At different places along the Mooi River our class studied
different aspects of the Mool river Itself. One of the first
things we did was to use simple measurements and observations
to measure the width of the river at different places.
3. Afiorher measurement that we did was to measure the depth of
the river .1 uirferent places. To do this we waded Into the
river measuring the uepth at one metre Intervals along a
straight 11r<^ with a metre rule for a distance of 10 metres.
We did this at three different point:. To draw the bank of
the river we continued with our ttansect up the bank for 10
metres by stretching a line from the highest point parallel
to the original line from the water.
The results were discussed during consolidation In the
classroom. We used our Information to draw cross sections of
the river at the three places.
4. An example of another measurement was that of speed flow. We
measured the speed of the river at different places by
dropping a stick Into the water and timing It over a 10 metre
ulstance. We found that the fastest flow was near the
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Shallow part of the river, while the river flowed slowly
where U was deep.
5. We caug'rtt small river animals and studied them In glass Jars
before letting them go again. He studied different parts of
the Mod river and learned that the cleaner parts had more
animals than the more polluted parts.
By studying different parts of the Mool river we loarned that
certain animals do better In polluted water than others;.
Through this we learned which animals show polluted water and
which animals show clean water. We called these animals
INDICATOR SPECIES.
CONCLUSIOHS
The health of the river depends upon two things:
Firstly, the river catchment must be In good condition so
that the river does not silt up or the river banks collapse.
Secondly, the river should not be polluted by chemicals,
fertilizers and sewage. These will affect the plant and
animal life.
Wattr ^3 one of the most precious possessions. By looking ?<fter
our rivers we can ensure that we always have a clean, reliable water
supply.
IX R. 5 Laundy, Patrick. "The Zulu People and Their
Inter-relatlonship with the Natural Environment." Seventh
Grade Student, Treverton Preparatory School, Private Bag 505,
Mool River, Natal 3300, Republic of South Africa.
(Conservation Is an Integral part of Environmental Education. A
week during the year Is spent by the class In Zululand to study the
Bushveld eco-system and the Inter-relatlonshlps of the Zulu people
with their environment. Patrick Lundy will cover this aspect.)
As part of the S" dard Five year is spent In Zululand to learn
about the history and culture of the Zulu people, we were also able to
camp In the natural environment where the Zu>us lived.
By studying the rhythms and cycles of the nrtural worlH there In
the bushveld, we were able to realise how the Zulu lived In harmony
with his environment and ^ow he understood It.
The Zulus were a pastoral people and it w«i *n their Interests to
know how the environment could be used to help them to survive and
t;ier3fore It Important to them that the environment was conserved.
We were ion to learn that practically every bit of vegetation was
of some use to the Zulu, and we found It to be most Interesting
learning how the Zulu way of life was Inter-related to most aspects of
his environment.
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First of an, we learnt that the Acacia tree Is very Important In
the bushveld. Apart from being a good browsing feed for his C€;tt1e,
the gum expelled by this tree was used by the Zulus to cure dysentry
and the thorns were used for needles* We learnt that the Acacia Is a
legume and therefore a very Important part of the nitrogen cycle and
encourages shade grass for winter grazing. Furthermore, It was a
wonderful experience to sit under an Acacia tree In the wilds and to
see how It had adapted to that environment.
As the Acacia tree grows In low rainfall and high temperature
areas. It has a small leaf surface, therefore little transpiration
takes place. The tree Is umbrel ia-shaped exposing a wide area of
leaves in the process of photosynthesis. This imbrella shane also
keeps the leaves away from the fire which Is common occurence In the
acacia savannah.
The Acacia Is a source of food for many of the browsers cf the
area. The animals browse on different levels. This prevents animals
concentrating on one area. Thus there Is more food available enabling
the vegetation to support the maximum number of animals.
Because of the shade rast by the Acacia tree, the ground aUo Is
rich In shade grass wh'ich the animals leave for their winter grazing.
The animals stay In the shade ot the Acacia tree at midday, chewing
their cud, they then drop their dung there. Tha seeds of the grasses
In the droppings germinate so there are more edible grasses. This
causes further grazers and their predators. Food webs soon form
around the tree.
In the acacia savanna we find the harvester termite or white ant.
The name white ant Is actually wrong because the termite Is not an
ant, but a member of the cockroach family. The termite Is In fact
preyed upon by the black ant.
In our study we found that termites build mounds that extend about
one-^ tenth above the surface and the rest below the ground.
Termites use grass as a source of food. They take grass way down
Into their termitaries. They can cause terrible devastation of a».
area unless cnecked.
Termitaries become the centre of food webs. The termites bting
deep seated mineral salts to the surface, fertilizing the ground and
thus causing rich grass growth, which In turn attracts grazers and
therefore predators.
So It has become obvious to us that termites are useful as well as
harmful and that natural control? are necessary to keep a balance.
This Is something the early Zulus reccs^ized, but unfortunately this
natural law has been lost ' ) many of our modern day people, who have
exterminated the controls, resulting In starvation of their cattle and
eventually themselves.
CONCLUSION
Our time spent In Zululand Is rewarding for the clas" and the
Individual. By carrying out our studies as we do, we not only learn
about man, animc s and plants, we feel them, see them and absorb the
atmosphere of the place. We also learn to live with and understand
AdCh other. We become better pupils and, surely more ^.iportant, we
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become better people. I have found that I no longer take the things
of nature for granted, and that I must be responsible to look after
the world that God has created.
It seems to me that the world Is golrg mad to prove something. If
only we could be like the early Zulus, but maybe then, with better
understanding we can.
IX. R.6 Parvess, Barry. "Zulu Culture and History." Seventh Grade
Student, Tre^crton Preparatory Scnool, Private Bag 505, Wool
River, Natal 3300, RepuMIc of South Africa.
(History for many years has been taught In such a 'dead' way that
many a young student has been completely 'switched off. History is
about to change, and taught In the environment of Its happenings, can
Inspire even young students to enthuse. Barry Parvess will, from his
experience whilst with the class In Zululand, speak on the 'History
and Culture of the Zulu people'.)
Africa accounts for a quarter o^ the land surface of the earth and
lOX of Its population. Almost ha.f of this Immense continent Is arid
or terribly humid; desert or equatorial forest, both of which a^e
hostile to man. Of the total land availability, only 3% of It can be
classified as truly fertile, and a further 8X as moderately so.
Like other continents In the world, Africa's resources will not
last forever, and the fact that strikes a note of urgency Is that
Africa has one of the fastest growing populations of the world. By
the tur ] of the century her present numbers would be doubled.
Much of what Africa Is now was determined by her recent past and
her colonial experience. African systems were overwhelmed by Western
systems which offered material alternatives to traditional African
wdys.
Essential to traditional African systems Is the availability of
plenty of land Into which their ever-growing numbers can spread. An
example of this Is the so-called Bantu migration, which, over a long
period, carried the black man steadily southward from his original
home 1n Central Africa Into Southern Africa.
As a previous speaker has mentioned. In South Africa the Eastern
parts are more generously watered then the Western parts, therefore
the migration poured Into this Eastern part. One of the nations that
developed this Eastern part of the sub-conttnent was the Zulu.
History
One of the tasks In cur Standard 5 year was to researrh the rise
and fall of the Zulu nation. To achieve th1$ we spent a week In
Zululand to study the history and culture of these peoole. and their
present status.
The Zulu people originated as a minor vassal clan of the pouerful
Mtethwa Tribe under the chieftainship of Oinglsjayo. A wife of
Senzangakona, chief of the Zulu, gave birth to a son Shaka, whose name
means '1nt<?st1nal bettle'. He, In turn, began the great rise of power
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of the Zulu Nation.
He moulded the Zulu Into a fighting ifiachlne, and the superbly
trained, well disciplined brave men formed an army which made the Zulu
the most dominant tribe In Natal and ZululantJ until the close of the
nineteenth century. Shaka was assassinated by Oinghaan, his
half-^brother .
The Zulus tragically began to lose their power under the
leadership of Oingaan, who, through his treachery, incurred the wrath
of the Dutch Trekkers and the British Cottiers who lived in Natal.
This led to the eventual defeat of the Zulus at the hands of the
Trekkers in the Battle of Blood River in 1838.
A further decline was accelerated by the leadership of the next
king Mpande who was, at this stage, merely a vassal to the British.
The power of the Zulus was finally deposed under the leadership of
Cetshwayo, who, like Shaka, was a warlike chief, but in the battles of
the Anglo-Zulu war of 1879 was defeated and later Imprisoned in
Britain. However, the pride of the Zulu was still great.
Culture
The culture of the Zulus is one of great Interest. Their families
ar^ led by the patriarch and the work is divided evenly between the
male and the female. The women of the tribe do the thatching,
beadwork, pottery and the floors of the hut, as well as the
cultivation of the crops. The men do the woodwork, hornwork, basketry
and the making of the hut frame, which is beehive shaped and thatchea
all round. The Zulus are a pastoral people and the boys'
resnonsibility is to herd the cattle. The villages in which they live
are known as 'iimuzl' which in English means 'homestead' .
The increasing population has caused the movement of peoples to
the towns. Less than a hundred years ago most of the Zulus lived on
the land sustaining themselves by what they produced by subsistence
farming and the breeding of cattle. Urbanization has practically
destroyed this system of self-^sustenance, and the advantage of their
way of life was never fully appreciated until they had been lost.
An industrial development has gained momentum in South Africa,
more and more people have moved into the industrial regions in search
of employment. Today, the rural areas are often under-populated and
desperately short of labour. The children and elderly are left In the
village while the able-bodied men turn to the towns to look for
opportunities of which there are simply not enough, and the women, in
turn, follow their men.
CO:iCLUSION
Unfortunately, with this increased migration to the urban areas,
the rural and pastoral elements of the Zulu society is being
affected. Proper farming methods are being taught and encouraged, but
the Western way of life and the cities are an irresistible
attraction. It must be remembered that the Zulus in Zululand are now
managing their own affairs under their own parliment.
I will conclude with a quote from 6.E.W. Wolstennolin's •'Man from
Africa."
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•'I think 1t 1s Afr'ca uhere man probably began» f.hat can give hope
of a new life. Bv an Ininense combined effort Africa can save
Itself and glvt a vital breathing space, to the rest of the
world.
Man everywhere ne ^ Africa* Even more, I beJeve, Africa, so
near to a fresh start, can set an unviable example to the older
world."
IX, R.7 Joavack, Adam. "Urban Conservation." Seventh Grade Student,
Treverton Preparatory Scriocl, Private Bag 505, Mool River,
Natal 3300, Republic of South Africa*
(Our last student t^ speak Is Adam Jaaback, who will talk on 'The
Conservation of a City . Thuse are h^s Impressions after our study of
the seapoit city of Durban In Natal. Here conservation and spatial
geography are covered.)
The Increasing advancement of our c^'vlllzatlon Is reflected In Its
effect upon out Environment. We are usinq up our resources and
releasing pollutants Into our natural "system at a rate which places a
great strain on Us ability to adapt* Today, there Is no part of
South Africa which has not felt the Impact of man.
Our modern cities are a highly artificial environment, with bleak
vistas of glass and concrete and rivers which have been boxed In
concrete and burled beneath streets. It Is this artificial quality
which sends city people by tne thousands Into more natural areas each
weekend and holiday season. And yet there Is no reason why our cities
have to be such unnatural sterile, communities. With Imag^ ^tlon and
forethought and some expense, they could be turned Into pla* es where
people enjoy living and which offer a healthier and a more relaxed way
of life. Architects and city planners are becomlna aware of this and
some are making provisions In cities for recreatlu.i areas and green
belts. Many buildings and complexes are being designed so that
plants, trees, gardens and sometimes parks are part of the structures.
During our studies this year, we were lucky enough to take a trip
to Durban to explore It as an Urban Settlement.
I took a look at the conservation of the urban settlement of
Duioan. Being a coastal city, I did not only 5;tudy the conservation
of the city but also the conservation of tho oeach and coastline and
harbour there.
What Is conservation? Conservation Is the wise use of our Natural
Resources • In my case, doing Urban Conservation, .itcans the wise
use of the Urban Environment.
Whilst In Durban, as a class, we studied th^ Mfe cycles of the
area and the way that many of the natural coK#r>.-n1t1es have been
affected by man. The main fact stressed greitU while we were there
was that Durban bay was actually an Importa^ Estuary, full of life.
When man moved In, urbanization began to taKe ^ ^ace and many of the
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Natural Communities and life cycles died out. When Durban became a
harbour, all thoughts of an ecological system were destroyed and as
shipping and Industry Increased the conservation of that area was
forgotten In Its planning.
We were able to compare this with a small Estuary that has been
conserved by the Durban authorities and we studied the habitats and
Ecosystems that have been preserved there. The Umengi River estuary
runs through Durban and it v^as there that we learnt about the
Importance of an estuary; and the surroundl.ig habitats like the
Mangroves and the Dunes.
Fish spawn at the mouths of estuaries and It Is here that the fish
swim Into the upper estuary for food and protection. It Is here that
we find the smaller organisms that feed larger fish and mammals In the
area, and naturally, where they occur, crocHlles. This means that
any change 1n the water affects not only tht Inmates of the estuary,
but also the fish populations from the surround'ing coastal shelf, to
whl;h the estuary Is a vital producer.
Whilst at the Umageni Estuary we :tud1ed a mangrove community.
Th'se swamps are dominated by the mangrove and few other trees occur.
Algae grows thickly on the trunks and parts of the mangrove below high
water level, and phytoplankton is washec^ Into the swamps at high tide
Mangroves are Important because they help to hold the banks of the
estuaries together, provide oxygen and form habitats for Important
^^stuarlne food webs.
Between the Mangroves and the sea, we studied the role of the
liaportant sand dunes. The plants of our coastal dunes, from the
pioneers to the climax forest community, all play a vitally Important
role 1n creating and maintaining a stable environment along our shore
line.
We did rot only study the conservation of flora In Its natural
community, but we also visited a. few centres and reserves for the
protection, conservation and rehabilitation of fauna and flora. An
excellent example of this Is Stalnbank Nature Reserve. This Is a
nature reserve In the middle uf Durban which does not only provide
homes for giraffe, zebra, impala, bushbuck, grey duiker, and other
small animals but also filters the cities pollution by absorbing
carbon dioxide and releasing fresh oxygen, making It very Important
for educational purposes and ecological functions.
We also visited C.R.O.W. the "Centre for Rehabilitation of
Wildlife". In an urban environment animals will obviously be hurt or
affected by man. Many olled-up birds are found on the nearby
coastline and rehabilitated. CROW also plays a part In educating the
public and schools.
CONCLUSION
South Africa boasts a wide diversity of wildlife, flowers, trees
and animals. Unfortunately, we tend to be accustomed and careless
about them. True, our birds are coming back to old and established
suburbs rich In trees. In Durban water fowl and game birds come back
to the ponds on the reclaimed water works. Our towns and cities
could, however, do better. Hills, ridges and streams could become
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Refuges for Wildlife if we but allow It. Unfortunately many of our
bigger city and town parks are 'formal' gardens with exotic species of
trees and flowers, our hllU or high ground are the suburbs for the
rich, and even worse, the sites for huge flat complexes and our rivers
are channeled Into lifeless concrete canals.
Through my study I believe that people living In Urban areas
should become more Environmentally aware. Certain organizations are
doing good work In Environmental Education In Durban but It Is up to
the public sector to stimulate action for better Environmental
conditions In our cities.
IX. S. Smith, Elizabeth H. "Environmental Education and the Gifted
Student: a Survey of Some International Programs In Schools".
The same characteristics which set gifted students apart from
their classmates equip them to understand the complex
Interrelationships of the environmental realm. These are the students
whose creativity. Idealism d:.d marked Intellectual abilities to
conceptualize, synthesize and generate Ideas can be enhanced by
environmental education curricula. Their skills and Insights Into
problem solving are a natural resource, a fact now recognized In
school programs around the world. The study examined reports on
environmental education programs for gifted students In Korea,
Malaysia. Australia, the United Kingdom and the USA.
IX. T Smith, Kay M. "Rationale and Activities for Early Childhood
Environmental Education: The Effect of the Home and School
on Environmental Learning". Director of Teacher Education,
Loyola University of Chicago. S20 N. Michigan Avenue,
Chicago, Illinois 60302, USA.
In the recent whirlwind of reports by educational commissions,
private foundations, and other evaluating bodies, the lack of science
education In United States' schools and of science knowledge of United
States 's students Is lamented. Many points to solutions like
requiring more credits In science at the high school level. I propose
another solution. It seems to me essential that we begin with a
child's natural curiosity about scientific relationships at a
pre-school age. The title of my presentation Is: Rationale and
Activities for Early Childhood Environmental Education: The Effect of
the Home and School on Environmental Learning.
Mary Budd Rowe notes the need for Inquiry-oriented science
Instruction and for students to see every day applications of their
science knowledge. Such science Instruction can begin at a very young
age and environmental science lends Itself particularly to inquiry
programs by Its nature and content. Inquiry programs Include
activltle:; which arouse students' curiosity and prompt spontaneous
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?91
exploration of Ideas, This curiosity and exploration Is Important for
environmental education In Its capacity for Involvement by families.
The role that persons and families nlay 1n maintaining the environment
Is significant.
The first step 1n teaching young children science 1s the use of
the discovery method. When compared with other learning methods.
Sellm found the discovery method superior In producing learning. The
discovery method translates to teaching what the child Is currently
attending to and allowing exploration (Tucker. 1976). This technique
Is easily communicated to parents. Barsch (1969) recommends that
parents be approached as Individuals and that teachers avoid Jargon.
Swick anJ Duff (1978) note four behaviors that teachers should develop
1n order to Interact more effectively with parents. Teachers should
exhibit:
1) flexibility
2) approachabllliy
3) sensitivity; and
4) dependability.
Another way to teach young children through their parents Is by
sending activity sheets home for families to do together. Some tips
for developing a relationship with families to produce an environment
In which parents will use teacher suggestions are provided by Long
(1982):
1. Send a welcome note to parents.
2. Conduct some learning sessions for parents.
3. Establish a classroom newsletter; this Is a perfect forum for
send heme activity sheets.
4. Keep parents Informed of current school science and
environmental topics.
5. Use- the telephone to reinforce.
6. Encourage parent assistance with home projects or school
:»roJects .
7. Periodically make home visits.
Algozzlne provides a caution for using parent assistance in the
classroom. She remind! teachers to make the most of volunteer
services. She suggests that teachers assess the needs and talents of
the volunteer, allow them to correct papers (but be sure to give them
an accurate key), let volunteers share pertinent life experiences or
provide opportunities to students, use volunteers to do research on
new teaching methods or assist students In research projects (a
volunteer might have time to see where the caterpillar 1s going), and
use volunteers to link to tht community.
The link to the community Is a special role for family Involvement
In environmental education. Part of the objective of environmental
education 1s to educate the larger community. Small children learning
and practicing environmental services (clean-up activities) can
galvanize a community In a way that nothing else can. Another aspect
of using a parent volunteer as a classroom aide Is to allow more
activity diversity and a link to the outside world. Young children
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often think of teachers as living at school (that's the only place you
see them, right?) but another child's parents really "knows" about the
cornnunlty. Environmental e<<ucat1on activities In school but provided
by parents cai' nave special Inipact. Obviously having another adult In
the room also expands the capacity for a variety of experiences via
email group work or learning centers.
Activities for home and school learning should be based on a
rationale that derives from the science world. Yager (1984) notes the
need for elenientary science curricula to do more Integrating and to
address affective environmental science dealing with energy, natural
resources and acceptable environmental quality. These concepts can be
dealt with when teaching young children by slaiple exposure which 1s
followed by capitalizing on children's questions. The whole (oncept
of custodianship can easily be developed In young children by allowing
them to do It. Follow a caterpillar and make sure no one steps on
It. Look for rocks or twigs and assume the responsibility of cleaning
up the school yard trash that obscures them.
Young children as beginning readers are not candidates for text
book methods of environmental education. This Is good as teachers too
often succumb to the temptatlc of the text book method of science.
Yager and Penick (1984) contend that the supremacy of the text book Is
a serious limitation of science learning and regret the fact that the
Investigative or laboratory dimension of science It almost totally
Ignored. Environmental education meets the complaint f»om teachers
and parents of a shortage of laboratory equipment and space. The
nearby environment 1s the lahoratory. Jackson (1984) reminds teachers
of Dewey's Insistence on the experience of "doing" science,
experiencing Its frustrations as well as its excitements. This method
Is supported In nearly every corner of science education.
Environmental education should consist of gu1<fed Inquiry and extensive
parent-child and teacher-child coninunlcatlon (Rowe, 1983).
Finally, 1t 1s crudai to recognize and capitalize on the
pre-d1sc1pl1nary world of young learners. Without barriers of
artiriclal division, children learn readily (Hawkins, 1983). This Is
enhanced by diverse materials and observation of natural phenomena.
These sustain and Increase children's natural curiosity. School u
only one component of the total mlleu of children's opportunities for
learning; family life, peer association and the big world are part of
the opportunities, too, and should be drawn Into the conspiracy to
foster environmental learning.
Activities for young children In environmental education can
center around such general areas as conservation, cyclical
relationships, equilibrium, change, time and space, and renewable and
non-renewable resources. Related topics such as the evaluation of
effects, the Influence of values and helping versus hurting the
environment may also be explored.
From these general areas, specific topics for learning activities
are generated. Wind, vacant lot projects, plants and food, and song
makers In nature are examples. These topics lend themselves readily
to learning activities for pre-schoolers.
293
Activities for learning occur in two general locations - the
school and the home. School activities can Include nature walks,
learning centers, flald trips, coloring activities, televlson or
fllmstrip lessons, scrapbook creations, presentations, "laboratory"
experlRientL, Integration with other subject areas (language arts,
math), and guest appearances (people, animals, plants).
ActlvUles for home learning may be shared with parents In a
variety of ways. Special television workshops and a section or column
In children's or parents' magazines are possible. Activity sheets or
home learning recipes are another way to give specific suggestions to
parents for learning at home. A local resource brochure or activity
bock provides additional ways of conmunl eating with the home. Several
specific suggestions for home and school learning activities will be
available on handouts at the session on preschool environmental
education at the conference.
IX. U. Stayton, Vickl and Jenne Pool. "Environmental Education and
the Young Child." PhD Candidate, Department of Special
Education, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois 61820,
USA; Center for Environmental Education, Murray State
University, Hurray, Kentucky 42071, USA.
Young children seem to learn best through concrete, direct,
hands-on experience. By using all of their senses to observe and
explore the world around them, children begin to develop concepts and
perceptions about their environment. The role of the teacher In this
process Is to continually provide activities and allow for situations
through which children can expand their experiences and develop more
complex concepts. This workshop, based on a 15-hour workshop
presented annually at Hurray State University. Murray, Kentucky, was
developed by the facilitators based on their own experiences In
working with young children. This two hour workshop was designed to
provide teachers of children aged 3-8 years with specific activities
that can be used with children In the outdoors, to provide them with
teaching strategies that facilitate working with children In the
outdoors, and to share resources containing environmental education
activities for young children. This was accomplished through hands-on
activity, discussion, and perusal of curriculum materials. In
addition, participants received a reference list of curriculum
materials appropriate for young children and written descriptions of
the workshop activities.
IX. V. Stubbs, Harriet and Marylou Klinkhammer. "Acid Precipitation
Information/Edocation/Curriculum Materials". Exerutive
Director, The Acid Rain Foundation, Inc., 1630 Blackhawk
Hills, St. Paul, Minnesota 55122, USA.
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Add Deposition — a global problem and issue. What Inforrnati
can you. as an educator, utilize? Act locally! Inforroat on was
presented about Instructional materials at the elementar < and
secondary level; resource materials from International, national
regional and local sources; Information from many different
viewpoints, and audlovlsuals.
IX. W. Wilson. Terry L. "Taking a 'BYTE' out cf the Energy
Problem: Bit by Bit." Director, Center for Environmental
Education, Murray State UnlversUy, Murray, Kentucky 42071,
USA. '
Microcomputers are becoming a part of classroom environments In
schools at an ever Increasing rate. Instructional software 1s being
developed quickly in an attempt to provide school personnel with
connections to their curricula and Instructional efforts. In the fall
of 1983, the Center for Environmental Education at Murray State
University received a contract from the Kentucky Energy Cabinet to
survey Instructional software available In the area of Energy
Conservation. The goal nf the survey was to evaluate those programs
available. In both the commercial and public domains, and to
dUsemlnate the results of the survey to public schools In Kentucky
The software Is being evaluated by a panel of experts that Includes
Classroom teachers, university professors, energy resource persons
and the project staff. The evaluations covered content, process '
applicability in educational settings, and the 'user-friendliness' of
each program examined. The presentation Included an explanation of
the project and its results, as well as hands-on exposure to selected
software .
X. A. Dayton. Thomas G. and Roger Allen. "AttUude Changes of
Youth at Environmental Education Residential Camps".
Environmental Education Coordinator. Youth tmployment and
Training Programs, Traverse Bay Area Intermediate School
District, 890 Parsons Road, Traverse City, Michigan 49684
USA: North Central Michigan College. 1515 Howard Street.
Petosky, Michigan 49770, USA.
Since 1981 the presentors have been measuring changes In
self-perception by low-Income youth, ages (6 to 21. This attitude
Change 1s part of a controlled experience and Is compared against the
youth s reference base. Measurement Is taken 1n environmental
education wof:v/study residential summer camps In northwestern
Michigan. Since 1981. approximately 250 youth have been tested. The
pre and port-te.t are designed to measure the youth's :hange in locus
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of control. An Increase In environmental awareness Is Inteaded to
create an attitude change which promotes greater Involvement In
matters of self determination.
Locus of control Is defined as a distribution of Individuals on a
continuum according to the degree to which they accept personal
responsibility for what happens to them, INTERNAL Individuals believe
tha*: their own actions Influence outco:nes. EXTERNAL Individuals
perceive that outcomes are not due to their own efforts, but to luck,
fc^te, or other Influences.
These summer camps are operated by the Youth Employment and
Training Programs, and are located In rustic settings. Economically
deprived youth are employed at the camps five days per week during the
summer. Instruction In construction skills, forestry/biology, and
environmental awareness Is provided. Youth receive high school o^
college credit for completion of the program.
The presentation Included descriptions of: (1) design and
implementation of the camping program, (?) relationship of program to
youth attitudes, and (3) study methodology and findings.
X. B. Hanie, Robert. "Blocultural Education: A Post Industrial
Educat'ion Process." Associate Professor of Citizen Action
and Hum<»n Ecology, Environmental Studies Program, Sangamon
State University, Springfield, Illinois 62708, USA,
The purpose of this paper is to comment upon the end of the
industrial era, to examine its stepchild, our existing Industrial
educational process, to restate certain natural premises of education,
to take cognizance of the character of post industrial America and to
describe a five year experiment in creating a post industrial
educational process.
In a recent press bulletin of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
appear these significant words: •'Employment in the consumer,
financial and service industries has irwved above the Job total in the
production industry for the first time In the history of the American
economy... In discussing what he called an economic milestone, Samuel
E. El,renhalt...said the changed relationship reflected not only a
shift toward a service-oriented economy but the weakness in goods
production... New York Times > 3uly 6, 1982. This brief official
statement marks the closing of a great histoiic movement.
The passing of the industrial era has rendered much of the settled
area of our country into a vast wasteland. Indeed, a trip through
these Roszakian Badlands around Bosnywash, San Difranangles and
Pittsdechicago resembles a post riuclear nightmare. In the future by
digging into the strata of these areas, post Industrial archeologists
The Passing of an Era, 1865-1982
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will find the symbols of this Important era of our past. What tliey
will find and can easily reconstruct Is the Image of Its God,
Science. "The mindscape (and landscape) to which our culture has been
shaping Itself over the past three centuries— and with ever more
decisive urgency slrxe the advent of Industrialization—Is the
creation of mo(5ern science" comments Theodore Roszak In Where Ihe
Wasteland Ends . It Is science which has produced unparalleled
material gains and the bourgeoning loss of wilderness, species,
communities, health, society and spirit. In his keynote address to
the First Global Conference of the World future Society at Toronto In
1980, Willis Harman spoke of the effects of science ".••It has led to
an unnoticed bias In the knowledge base of Indurtrlal society. The
quantifying, measuring, predlctlon-and-control emphasizing methods of
science have brought fantastic gains In knowledge about the
sense-perceived world... Along with these gains there has been an
Ignoring of, and even a bias against, systematic exploring of the
•other half of human experlence-^-the realm of Inner experience of
conscious and unconscious mental activities..." Consciousness has
been described as much like an Iceberg ~ only minute part of It can be
perceived by the senses The unconscious realm covers a vast new
frontier: Intuition, vision, spirit, the creative process.
Imagination, autoiomic functioning, reflexes, dream-like, habitual
behavior, memory, pattern recognition, conceptualization.
American Industrial Educational Processes, 1965-?
American education 1s and Increasingly has been since 1865 another
Industrial process. Our educational system has developed a
corresponding thought process with Industry which Is at once rational,
objective, reductive, linear and pragmatic. American Industrial
education has produced an "Incredible Hulk" of reading, writing and
arithmetic on the one side of the student, and an "Invisible han" on
the 3ther side which has hardly been developed. The very traits we
neerj to get us through the challenges as we approach 2000 AO - the
main one being survival - are those most neglected: creativity,
Intuition, Imagination, Jioy, hope, aspiration. Public education 1s
presently undergoing one of Its periodic review;. The last serious
critique was In response to Sputnik In 1957. Five major appraisals of
American educational processes appeared during 1983. Not one
mentioned the passing of the Industrial era. Not one mentioned the
transitional nature of our time. Not one mentioned the need for an
educational process that deals with the so-called other half of the
self. Objective education, like science, Is a cultural artifact of
Industrial America. In this time of transition from an Industrial era
to a post Industrial era It would seem wise to devise an alternative
educational process. For not only Is the Industrial educational
process outmoded, the computer, the culmination of Industrial
conmunlcatlons devices, will take over the linear functions of that
paradigm.
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Nature, The Grand Teacher of Prelndustrlal America
Kature 1s the source of all learning. Education Is an ancient
process of adaption. It Is an attempt to grasp nature In a fashion
plausible to the time and convey It to the children of a given
generatlor, Shamen and professors have been doing this for thousands
of years. Nature was the grand teacher to the people of prelndustrlal
America. Fredrick Jackson Turner spoke el'^^^jently of this In his
watershed address before the American Historical Association In
Chicago In 1393: "The Significance of the Frontier In American
History:... that coarseness and stiength combined with acuteness and
1nqu1s1t1 veness; that practical, Inventive turn cf mind, quick to find
expedients; that masterful grasp of mater*'l things... that restless,
nervous energy; that dominant Individualism, working for good and for
evIU and withal that buoyancy and exuberance which comes with freedom
— tnese are the traits of the frontier.." Such Is the magic of
nature which Carl Oung like Henry David Tho^^eau before him has said Is
the source of all creativity. Nature Is not to be found In the
objective Cartesian-Newtonian defined methodology that we were taught
In grammar school, nor In the Kuhnlan derivative, normal science,
enforced upon us In latter life, nor In the curiously shrivelled words
of Jacob Bronowski. What we need Is an "artistic method" of Inquiry
that Is as powerfully Indeterminate as the scientific method has bsen
aetermlnate.
The Springfield Experiment, 1979-?
The premise cf the Springfield Experiment Is that we are living In
a time of transition, a time which bears witness to the decline of an
old myth and paradigm and the rise of a new myth and a new paradigm.
While no one book or document expresses Its philosophy. It will be
built around linkages to all the energies of the earth, the self and
the future. The* Springfield Experiment has attempted to devise a
subjective educational process v^lch Is post-lndustrlaly based,
mythological ly oriented utilizing pictorial symbols to categorize and
define reality to link to the existing objective educational process
which Is Industrially based, scientifically oriented and
mathematically defined. The result Is a process which Incorporates
the best energies of the both paradigms. We call our experiment
Blocultural Education for It attempts to link all the traits of nature
and culture and to consider them 1n both a rational and IntultWe
fashion. It could also be called education with the corpus callosum
In mind (or spirit). Our curriculum Is based upon the premise that
education should mimic nature, not Industry. (400 students have spent
up to 13 weeks In our program which will enter Its sixth summer during
1935). Our curriculum attempts to trace the Journey of humankind
through a thematic approach which Is divided Into three parts: Primal
Studies, Historical Studies and New Studies. It utilizes the methods
of guided Imagery, meditation, kinesethotlcs. journal keeping, dream
work, vision quest, song, story and dance, ot^er approaches to
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creativity and Intuition, etc. All of this Is In addition to
traditional education and traditional courses which are tcught
concurrently. Besides yearly goals, objectives and theip-^s the program
encourages three major undertakings by Its faculty and students: the
development and understanding of one's own personal myth, the
development of at least one technical prof 1c incy. I.e. computer
programming, along with a thorough understanding of the history of
technology; and, the exploration of avenues of connections between the
world of technics and mythcs.
Conclusion
Hans ChrlstUn Anderson's story of tne ^Nightingale* could
probably stand as the metaphor of our time. A wondrous nightingale Is
Imprisoned by a king so that h^ can always have music of unsurpassed
beauty. The nightingale finally escapes. The king falls 111. The
music box built to mimic the nightingale breaks down ~ after constant
playing. The nightingale Intuitively returns as the king approaches
death and sings him back to life. Then the king accepts the bird on
Its own terms Just so he can hear the wonderous music
occasionally. Of such Is the story of human nature In our time. Of
such Is the story of our h^ 1th as a species. li Is hoped that we
will have time to learn to accept nature on her own tennis and that our
lives h»111 become "Attuned to the rhythms of nature. Of such should be
our education.
X. C. Fortner, Rosanne H. "Environmental Education Adoption
Potential of Inservlce Horksh Participants 1n the U.S. and
Barbados." Assistant Professor, School of Natural Resources
and Coordinator of the Ohio Sea Grant Education Program, The
Ohio State University, 2021 Coffey Road. Columbus, Ohio
43210.
Formal education progr--^^^ frequently Include teacher training as a
mechanism for dlsserr^lratlon of environmental Information, curriculum
materials, teaching techniques and the like. Diverse evaluation
strategies gauge the effectiveness of such programs In terms of thel*^
Impact tn the teachers themselves, their curricula, end their
students. Rarely, however, are such programs evaluated for their
potential among differing populations. Reviewing the literature of
inservlce education likewise does not provide such Indications of
potential, because reports usually do not include a complete
characterization of the participants.
The literature of education contains many studies related to
factors that facilitate the adoption of innovations. If It Is assumed
that the infusion of environmental education Into formal school
settings constitutes an Innovation for many, the adoption literature
can provide an important means of predictln-^ the success of Inservlce
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environmental ejucatlon programs.
This study was designed to Incorporate the adoption literature
with a comparison of teacher characteristics from Inservlce
Envlronmeital Education workshops In two different cultures. The
questions to be answered were:
(1) What characteristics of teachers, of school situations and of
Inservlce programs are related to predictable adoption of
educational Innovations?
(2) What are the characterV.tlcs of the voluntary participants In
Inservlce Environmental education workshops. In Barbados and
^n Ohio (representing the United States)?
(3) riow do the workshop participants perceive the chararterlstlcs
of the school systems that employ them?
(4) What a^e the partlclpunts* needs for Inservlce Environmental
Education?
(5) What Is the likelihood that the participants will adopt
materials and methods used In the workshops?
WORKSHOP DESCRIPTIONS
Four Inservlce environmental education workshops were conducted In
1983-84, two In Barbados and two in Ohio, U.S. A, The worksiiops
differed In funding source, presenting faculty and to some extent
subject matter, but there were many similarities as welK All
workshops Included faculty from the Ohio State University, School of
Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Education. All had as
their goal an Increase In environmental awareness among participants
and the development of positive attitudes toward the environment, as
well as encouragement to use non-text curriculum materials and open
Investigative methods for Instruction.
The format of the workshops consisted of (1) Introductory
activities 'or acquainting participants and Instructors and
establlshi z a precedent for Interaction; (2) alternate periods of
subject matter presentations and hands-on activities; (3) field work*
(4) group projects and Individual activities. For all portions of the
workshop the Instructors encourageo Involvement of all participants.
(Complete workshop descriptions are available from the author.)
Some workshops were prepared In advanc*^ for distribution to
participants. These consisted of curriculum materU.s from the Ohio
Sea Grant Education Program, Projects COAST and ORCA, subject matter
outlines, and other activities developed by the Instructors
specifically for the local environment. All materials were evaluated
during use and after the entire workshop was completed. In addition,
each participant was asked to produce an original or adopted
curriculum activity as a final ^ '^ss project. This served as c means
of Applying Information from th^i workshop and .Tiaking an Immeuiace
transition of the methods Into the classroom situation. The
teacher-made materials were compiled and returned to all participant*^.
PARTICIPANT CHARACTERISTICS
Each participant of the four workiihops completed a Teacher
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Questionnaire which requested demographic Information, a description
of the teaching situation an assessment of the school's
facilities anH potential for environmental education. The number of
males and females did not differ significantly between workshops, nor
did the age of participants, which ringed from 25-55. Ten percent of
all participants were school or school system administrators. The
grades taught by the classroom teachers ranged from kindergarten
through twelve, with more elementary teachers in Mentor, Ohio, and
other worksliops having a range of grades represented. Of the Barbados
teachers, 60-70X had the equivalent of a Bachelor's degree. Thirty to
40X of the Ohio teachers held graduate degrees and 60X indicated they
^ad taken .hree or more courses since completing their highest
degree. Seventeen percent o' Barbados ceachers had this number of
courses.
A. School Characteristics
As for teaching situations, 1/3 of teachers in both countries
reported teaching more than 100 students per day. The subjects taught
varied In Barbados with the announced content of the workshop; In
Ohio, 40-50X of participants taught all elementary subjects, and
another 40X were science or social studies teachers. For all groups,
75X taught using a required textbook. The mode of Instruction most
commonly used In all workshop groups was a total group Instruction.
The school situations represented were quite varied. Half of the
Ohio participants claimed that "a reasonable amount of money" would be
available for new activities they might develop, but oniy 22% of the
Barbados teachers expected such support. All Ohio participants
Indicated that their schools could provide for trips away from school,
while 1/2 of the Barbados teachers would find this impossible. Both
groups (70-89X) regularly use classroom activities that are not
Included In their textbooks, but many (36-50% U.S., 83X Barbados)
found their schools' environmental education library holdings and
other facilities to be less than adequate.
Teachers in all groups expressed satisfaction with both teaching
as a career and their own teaching situations, with up to 61X of the
Ohio teachers claiming to be very satisfied. Sixty-four percent of
Barbados teachers and 15X of U.S. teachers had never taught
environ .lental topics.
Participants were asked to Indicate how Important it would be to
Include certain topics In future environ ^ntal education workshops.
Responses diffe.ed between the two cultures, with Barbadians
expressing greater needs for assistance with development of materials
for strategies to evaluate both learner outcomes and teacher
effectiveness. All groups indicated that teaching methods and local
applications of subject matter were of greatest Importance. U.S.
teachers In elementary schools considered It important to actually
work through the curriculum activities, while middle and high school
teachers wanted assistance with curriculum development.
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CONCLUSIONS
Based on these factors 1t 1s Ukely that teachers Involved 1n the
four workshops have a better than average potential to becoming
adopters of the Innovative techniques and materials presented. Many
of the Ji*1opt1cn facilitation factors were Intentionally built Into the
total workshop program, and 1t Is hoped that these factors will
outweigh the potential problem areas.
The Teacher Questionnaire should be modified to accomodate the
cultures of other countries and to collect more Information cn
community characteristics and professional activities of the
teachers. This would facilitate prediction ot workshop success.
In future workshops an effort should be made to Involve school
administrators on a larger scale, especially In developing countries.
These Individuals can not only encourage Innovation but also provide
the *cl low-up support that may not be possible through overseas
communications systems.
In order to extend the results of this research, three quest' tif.b
are offered as a basis for cooperative efforts with others workin^
environmental education for developing countries:
1. What testing Instruments are suitable for measuring teacher
characteristics In different cultures?
2. What teacher characteristics facilitate adoption of
educational Innovations In developing countries?
3. Can adopter characteristics be developed or can their
acquisition be facilitated by providing training and
exparlence In Innovation?
Educatlcnal change has historically moved at a glacial pace.
Perhaps there are ways to speed Innovations by combining the results
of previous researc^. with what we have learned of the educational
systems of different cultures.
X. 0. Nines, Jody M. "An Analysis and Synthesis of Research on
Responsible Environmental Behavior: A Heta Analysis".
Assistant Professor, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar
Falls. Iowa 50613-
Responsible environmental behavior Includes those behaviors
Initiated by an Individual, with the aim of remedldting an Identified
environmental problem (Peyton, 1977). The development of Individuals
who Intentionally engage In such behaviors Is the overriding goal of
environmental education (Rolh, 1970; Hungerford t, Peyton, 1976; Stspp,
1971.).
This goal Is net one which can be easily attained and Indeed It
has not as yet been realized (Roth, 1981; Hungerford & Volk, 1983).
The process of altering human behavior Is extremely complex and Is
dependent upon possessing knowledge of variables which Influence the
desired behaviors. Such Information Is vital to the environmental
educator for Its potential In terms of providing a sound empirical
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base on which to construct appropriate curricula for the successful
development of environmentally responsible behaviors*
Despite a significant Increase In empirical research In this area
over the past decade, research efforts have not provided environmental
educators with a clear picture of the necessary components of such an
educational program. While a tremendous variety of variables have
been Investigated In relation to behavior In an environmental context,
there Is at present, no agreement among researchers as to which of
these variables appear to be most strongly associated with responsible
environmental behavior*
The research reported here attempted to address this problem* An
analysis and synthesis of environmental behavior research was
conducted In an effort (1) to determine those variables which have
been Identified in the research as being associated with responsible
environmental behavior, (2) to determine the relative strengths of the
relationships between each of these variables and responsible
environmental beh<^v1or, and (3) to develop a model of variables
associated with environmental behavior which would be mcst
representative of the research synthesized in the Investigation*
The primary methodology employed In accomplishing these goals
Involved the use of the Schs«1dt-Hunter meta-analysis techniques
{Hunter, Schmidt, & Jackson, 1982). Meta-analysis is the term applied
to groups of precise statistical methods designed to Integrate
empirical findings of studies addressing the same relationship.
Meta-analysis allows the researcher to determine the relative
strengths o^ the associations between the variables Investigated and
responsible environmental behavior and thus provides a means of
showing which aspects of the relationships are truly Important and
which are only thought to be Important*
Environmental behavior studies were located as a result of an
exhaustive search of the literature. The search covered research
which had been reported since 1971 and Included published works,
dissertations, and fugitive literature. A list of 380 studies for
possible Inclusion In the data set emerged from this search.
Sixty-five of these works could not be located. Of the remaining 315
studies, 128 were found to contain empirical data on the relationship
between any number of var'iables and responsible environmental behavior
and thus provided the data for this study*
Characteristics and findings for each of these studies were
transcribed onto coding sheets. Analysis of this data revealed a
number of broad categories of variables which had been researched In
association with responsible environmental behavior. These categories
Included cognitive, personality, and demographic variables as well as
a category of experimental studies comprised of behavioral
intervention approaches and classroom strategies aimed at encoura^'i^g
responsible environmental behavior* These categories provided the
organizational structure for the meta-analysis of tiie data.
The following findings emerged from the meta-analysis:
1. The variables which were found to be most strongly associated
with responsible environmental behavior and the relative strengths of
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these c ,1at1ons, as represented by an average correlation
coefficient were: a. an individual's intention to take action (r s
.491), b. locus of control (r « .365), c. attitudes toward the
environment ^ id toward taking action (£ « .347), d. personal
responsibility felt to help alleviate environmental problems (r ^
.328), and e. knowledge of environmental issues and of the modes of
taking action on these issues (r « .299).
2. Extremely weak to non-existent relationships we'^e detected
between the following variables and responsible to human behavior:
income, age, educational level, gender, and an individual's economic
orientation.
3. The behavioral intervention studies which were meta-analyzed
were all found to be effective in increasing the incidence of
responsible environmental behavior. These strategies and their
corresponding average r values were: a, the use of verbal and written
appeals (r = ,707), b, the offering of incentives (r = .690), c.
providing information to subjects (r = .472), and d. providing
feedbacK to subjects (r. = .^^67).
4. The mode by which behavior was assessed was found lo have a
moderating effect on study outcon^s. In most cases, higher
correlations between the variables assessed and environmental behavior
were obtained from studies in which measures of actual behavior were
employed as opposed to those studies which relied upon self-reported
behavio"" assessments.
5. Study outcomes were affected by the population sampled. In
all c<«ses, hiyher correlations uetween the variables assessed and
responsible environmental behavior were detected in those studies
whose samples were comprised of individuals with ties to in
environmental organization (e.g. Sierra Club).
6. Experimental design was found to have moderated study
outcomes. In most cases those studies which employed pre-experimental
designs reported substantially larger changes in behavior than were
observed in quasi-experimental and true experimental design studies.
I?ased on the findings summarized above and on additional findings
presented in the original research (Hines, 1984), a model of
environmental behavior was formulated. One essential component of the
proposed model was an IndividuaTs intention to take action, which
while directly linked to behavior, also appeared to be strongly
influenced by, or perhaps merely an artifact of, a number of other
variables operating in combination. These other variables included
cognitive knowledge, cognitive skills, personality factors, and
situational variables.
The rpodeTs pathway implies that before an individual can
intentionally act on a particular environmental problem, that
Individual must be cognizant of the existence of the problem. In
addition, that person must also possess knowledge of those courses of
action w<>tch are available and which will be most appropriate in a
given situation. Another critical component related to behaving
responsibility towards the envlrori.nent appears to be skill in
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appropriately applying this knowledge to a given problem. These
cognitive skills, combined with the appropriate knowledge, endow
individuals with the abilities needed to act upon environmental
problems.
However, in addition to possessing the ability to act, an
Individual wust also possess a desire to behave responsibly. One's
desire to act appears to be related to a host of personality factors.
These Include attitudes, locus of control, and an Individual's sense
of personal responsibility. A person who possesses positive attitudes
toward the environment and toward taking action, who has an Internal
locus of control, and ?iho feels a personal responsibility to help
solve environmental problems, will be wore likely to behave
responsibly toward the environment than will an Individual who does
not possess these characteristics.
The proposed behavioral model also Indicates that situational
variables such »s economic constraints, outside Intervention, and
opportunities to '•.hoose different actions, may enter the picture and
serve to either counteract or to strengthen the operation of those
variables In the model. For example. If an Individual has the
ability, desire, and opportunity to help stop pollution by
contributing to a local toxic waste fund, but simply cannot afford to
do so, that person will not engage In the environmental action.
Situational factors may also act to Increase the incidence of
responsible environmental behavior. For Instance, a person may curb
energy consumption only to save money. While this person obviously
possesses the knowledge and abilities to conserve, his actions have
likely not stemmed from a deep-seated desire to conserve fossil fuels
for the good of society and of the environment as a whole, but rather
from personal and financial bases. Thus, In situations In which
Individuals do not possess those personality characteristics which
lead to a desire to help alleviate environmental problems, these
Individuals may be enticed into behaving responsibly by the
manipulation of situations In which environmental beha-lors are
rewarded and anti -environmental behaviors are penalized.
Meta-analysis of the data did not ailow the determination of the
Interrelationships between each of the factors In the proposed model.
In addition, t^'ls research was limited by the na*-ure of the variables
which researchers have chosen to Investigate. In *hat where only one
or two studies were located on a particular relationship (e.g.,
adrogyny vs. behavior), findings were not meta-analyzed. Despite
these limitations, however, it Is possible to provide environmental
educators with knowledge of those factors which appear to be essential
to the development of environmentally responsible Individuals.
The proposed model Indicates the necessity of the de"elopp;ent and
Implementation of environmental educational approaches which address
both affective and cogn1t1 'e experiences and which provide Individuals
with opportunities to develop and to practice those skills necessary
to act on environmental problems. While the research synthesized 1n
this Investigation was unable to specify precisely how the affective
component might be addressed 1n the EE curricula, the knowledge and
30V
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skill components can be addressed via Issue tdentif Ication, issue
investigation, and action-taking approaches (Ramsey, 1979; Klinger,
1980). It Is essential that EE curriculum development efforts become
more focused on these aspects if the ultimate goal of environmental
education is to be achieved.
Reference List
Nines, J.M. An Analysis and Synthesis of Research on Responsible
Environmental Behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1984.
Hungerford, H.R., & Peyton, R.B. Teaching Environmental Education .
Portland, ME: J. Weston Walch. 1976.
Hungerford, H.R. & Volk, 6.L. "The Challenges of K-12 Environmental
Education." Paper presented for a National Association of
Environmental Education Monograph, 1983.
Hunter, J.E., Schmidt, F.L., & Jackson, 6.B. Meta-analysis:
Cu mulating Research Findings Across Studies . Beverly Hills, CA:
Sage, 1982.
Peyton, R.B. An Assessment of Teachers' Abilities to Identify. Teach,
and Implement E ivironmental Action Skills . (Doctoral
dissertation, Sourthern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1977).
Roth, R.E. "Fundamental Concepts of Environmental Management Education
(K-16)." The Journal of Environmental Education . 1970, 1:65-74.
Roth, R.E, "The Whole Earth: an EE Perspective." The Journal of
Environmental Education . 1981, 12(2), 1-2.
Stapp, W.B. "Environmental Encounters." In Schoenfeld, C. (Ed.)
Outline of Environmental Education . Madison, WI: Oembar
Educational Research Services, Inc., 1971.
y I Panel: "Predicting Environmental Behavior." PANEL CHAIR:
Harold R. Hungerford, Professor, Southern Illinois
University-Carbondale, Illinois 62901, USA. PANELISTS:
Audrey N. Tomera, Professor, Southern Illinois
University-Carbondale, Trudi L. Vclk, Assistant Professor,
Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky; Archie P.C. Sia,
Assistant Professor, Rockhurst College, Missouri; Jody M.
Hines, Assistant Professor, University of Northern Iowa.
The development of environmentally responsible and active citizens
has become the ultimate goal of environmental education (Hungerford &
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Peyton, 1976; Roth, 1970; Stapp, 1971). A national survey of
professional environmental educators, conducted by Volk (1983), found
overwhelming support among environmental educators for the Importance
of this goal. Yet these same Individuals also feel that this goal is
not being achieved. Volk points out the pressing need to develop new
curricula which address the environmental behavior goal.
One of the major impediments to the accomplishments of this goal
has arisen as a result of a lack of knowledge of those factors which
Influence the development of environmentally responsible individuals
(L1nke, 1980). Bruvold (1973) considers this problem to stem, in
part, from a lack of theory to guide environmental behavior research.
In order to ameliorate this shortconing, a theoretical framework for
environmental behavior prediction is needed.
Mines (1984) has taken a step in the establishment of such a
theoretica framework by conducting a meta-analysis of environmental
behavior research. Heta-analysis consists of a group of explicit,
unambiguous and operationally def ^led methods for Integrating
empirical research findings (Hunter, Schmidt, & Jackson, 1982).
Applied to environmental behavior research, such techniques allow the
determination of the relative strengths of the relationships between
the variables which have been researched and responsible environmental
behavior. Thus, meta-analysis provides a means of determining which
relationships are truly important and which are only thought to be
Important.
In Hines' study, an exhaustive search of the literature was
conducted in an effort to locate empirically bared environmental
behavior research which had be»n conducted since 1971. This search
yielded a list of 380 studies :or possible inclusion In the data set.
Of these, 128 studies were found to contain empirical data on the
relationship between a number of variables and responsible
environmental behavior. Analysis of these studies resulted in the
emergence of a number of broad categories of variables which research
has found to be associated with responsible environmental behavior.
These categories include cognitive variables, psycho-social variables,
and uemographic variables, six of these factors mentioned above were
shown by the meta-analysis results to be associated with responsible
environmental behavior. These variables, along with their average
correlations, are: (1) an individual's intention to take action
(I--«1). (2) locus of control ,r - .365), (3) attitude toward some
aspect of the environment or toward taking action (r = .347), (4)
personal responsibility felt to help alleviate environmental problems
(r = .228), and (5) knowledge of environmental Issues and of the modes
of taking action (r = .299).
Based on the findings mentioned above, and on additional data
summarized in her research. Nines formulated a model of responsible
environmental behavior. The essential components of the model include
an individual's intention to take action, which, in turn, is directly
linked to an Individual's knowledge of environmental Issues, knowledge
of how to take action of these issues, skill in the application of
this knowledge to environmental Issues, and *-o a number of personality
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307
factors which include attUudes, locus o< control, and personal
responsibility.
Some of the variables mentioned In this model have been
Investigated by Sla (1984). Sla's research examined the relative
contributions of eight variables In predicting overt environmental
behavior. These predictors were: (^) level of environmental
sensitivity, (2) perceived knowledge of environmental action
strategies, (3) per» iklll In using environmental action
strategies, (4) pert ^eu Individual locus of control, (5) perceived
group locus of control, (6) psychological sex role classification, (7)
belief In/attitude toward pollution, and (8) belief 1n/att1tude toward
technology.
Stepwise regression revealed that the best predictors for all
respondents, accounting for 49.24X of the variance, were perceived
skill In applying environmental action strategies (34.54X), followed
by level of environmental sensitivity (12.92%) and knowledge of
environmental action strategies (1.78X). Separate analyses of the
comparison groups. Sierra CWB members and an Elierhostel group,
revealed that the best predictors for the Sierra Club sample,
accounting for a total of 4CX of the variance, were perceived skill In
applying environmental action strategies (30.15X) and level of
environmental sensitivity (S.^'^X). The best predictors for the
Elderhostel sample, accounting for a total of 64. 50% of the variance,
were levels of environmental sensitivity (45.24X), skill In the
application of environmental action strategies (13.41X), and group
locus of control (5.91%).
Together, the descriptive studies conducted by Hines and S1a
provide support for the Importance of specific knowledge, skill, and
affective components In the prediction of pro-environmental behavior.
Yet, these studies are correlational In nature; evidence of a causal
link between these variables and environmental behavior cannot be
gained from studies such as these. However, experimental studies
reported by Ramsey (1900) and by Kllngor (1980) do provide the support
needed concerning the Importance of these variables In the deveK '^ent
of environmentally responsible individuals.
In a quasi-experimental stuay, Ramsey (1979) Investigated and
compared the educational and behavioral outcomes of two discrete EE
methodologies, one directed at issue awareness and the other focused
on environmental action training. The case study group was exposed to
information concerning knowledgi? of environmental issues and knowledge
of how to act on some of these issues. A second treatment group not
only received knowledge of environmental issues and how to take action
on these issues, but also learned issue investigation skills,
identified implicit value positions associated with environm^^ntal
problems, f.utonomously investigated environmental problems, and
applied environmental action strategies to real environmental issues.
One of the dependent variables measured was student's self-^reported
over! environmental behaviors above and beyoH those associated with
school .
Analysis of the post-test results revealed that the action group
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reported engaging 1n a significantly greater number of overt
environmental action behaviors than did either the case study :ir the
control groups. In addition, no significant differences In the number
of self-reported behaviors reported by the control group as compared
to the case study group were detected following treatment.
Kllnger (1980) applied the same Instructional model used by Ramsey
and concluded that the Instruction did result In a significant
Increase In overt environmental actions reported by students. He
further Inferred that there appeared to be a relationship between
environmental action training and the dej^lre to engage In further
environmental actions.
These studies provide further evidence for the Importance of the
Inclusion of knowledge of environmental Issues, knowledge of
environmental action strategies, end the opportunity for the
application of this knowledge and skills to real Issues. The findings
of the Ramsey and Kllnger studies also emphasize that knowledge
without the skills needed to apply that knowledge to the problem, does
not result on the desired behavior changes. If w.» are to meet the
goal of environmental education, which Is to produce environmentally
responsible citizens who can work for a balance between quality of
life and quality of environment, it Is Imperative that those predictor
variables Identified In the research summarized above be af''iressed In
EE curriculum development and Instructional practice.
Reference List
Bruvold, W.H. "Belief and Behavior as Determinants of Environmental
Attitudes." Environment and Behavior . 1973, 5(2) :202-218.
Hines, J.H. An Analysi s and Synthesis of Research en Responsible
Environmental Behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1984.
Hungerford, H.R., 8, Peyton, R.B. Teaching En vi ronmental Education .
Portland, ME: J. Weston Walch, 1976. ~~~ ^
Hunter, J.E., Schmidt, F.L., & Jackson, G.B. ?^?ta-ana1>«s1s:
Culminating Research Fin din gs ; r ross Studi es. Beverly Hills. CA:
Sage, 1982. "
Kllnger, G. The Effect of an Instructional Sequence on the
Environmental Ar tlon Skills of a Samole of Southern Illinois
Eighth Graders. Unpublished masters research paper. Southern
Illinois University at Carbondale, 1980.
Linke, R.o. "Achievements and Aspirations In Australian EE." Journal
of Environmental Education . 1981, 12(2):20-23.
311
309
Ramsey, J.M. A Comparison of the Effects of Environwental Action
Instruction and Environmental Case Study Instruction on the Overt
Environmental Behavior of Eighth Grade Students . Unpublished
masters theses, Sourthern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1979.
Roth, R.E. "Fundamental Concepts of Environmental Management Education
(K-16)." The Journal of Environmental Education . 1970, 1:65-74.
Sla, A. P. An Investigation of Selected Predictors of Overt
Environmental Behavior . Unpubllshe^i doctoral dissertation.
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1984.
Stapp, W.B. "Environmental Encounters." In Schoenfeld, C. (Ed.)
Outlines of Environmental Education . Hadlson, WI: Dembar
Educational Research Services, Inc., 1971.
Vo^k, G.L. "A National Survey of Curriculum Needs as Perceived by
Professional Environmental Educators." (Doctoral dissertation.
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1983). Dissertation
Abstracts International . 1983, 44(5), 1327A (University Microfilms
Ho. 83-21,474).
IX. F Larson, Mark A. "Theory Building In Environmental
Education." Associate Professor, Journalism Department,
Humboldt State University, Areata, California 95521, USA.
That future history will be a race between environmental education
and environmental catastrophe Is quite clear. Therefore,
environmental educators have set out to help bring about Informed
environmental policies for society that will be compatible with the
maintenance of a suitable planetary environment (Pettus, 1976).
In order to accomplish this, environmental education must produce
a citizenry that Is knowledgeable concerning the biophysical
environment and Its associated problems, aware and skilled ln how to
become Involved 1n helping to solve these problems, and motivated to
work toward their solution (Stapp, 1969). Presumably, then, 1t would
serve society If It were known how to more effectively change
Individuals Into "environmental activists," I.e., "persons who have
changed or directed their lifestyle to Include more environmentally
sound practices (such as reducing energy and resource consumption) and
have worked 1n society, either Individually or with groups who shared
their goals, to conserve natural resources and to slow, halt or
prevent environmental and ecological problems, crises or pollution 1n
any form" (Larson, 1977).
The difficulties of this task have been compared to the
difficulties of the early alchemists:
Environmental comirtunlcators often arrive at a purpose closely
parallel to that of eai ly alchemists who sought to transform less
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310
desirable metals into gold. The environmental conraunlcator, ^oo,
begins with a material of lesser quality - the unlovely human
mind, 1n many instances wholly lacking In environmental awareness
and ecological values. The communicator hopes to add something to
the cognitive material that will elevate It to a state of
•ecological conscience." The problem Is to discover the
manipulations, the treatments that bring this transformation about
(Schramm, 1973).
Unfortunately, it Is still true, despite LowenthaTs (1972) early
criticisms, that while research contributions to the understanding of
environmental perception and behavior have Increased In number, the
field fis a whole remains essentially unorganized and disjointed. What
Is lacking is a unifying theoretical model which brings together the
range of variables that may account for variability In environmental
activism, and which could serve as a framework for organizing previous
research findings:
It Is only the construction of theorttlcal edifices and the
Invention of constructs and postulatlon of processes ... that will
allow us to Interpret the meaning of our empirical findings and to
engage In cautious but essential generalizations to situations
different from those dealt with In a particular study (Wohlwlll
and Carson, 1972).
This research proposes, therefore, a theoretical model to use as a
guide while Investigating Influences In the socialization process of
environmental activists. The socialization of environmental activists
Is conceptualized as the process by which an individual acquires
environmental attitudes, values and Interests; knowledge of
environmental problems, motivation to participate in environmental
activities; and a psychological Identification with a reified group
called "envlronmentf^l activists."
THEORETICAL OVERVIEW
The term "socialization" is usually defined as: processes by which
Individuals learn to participate effectively in the social env^.onment
(Ward, 1972): as the whole process by which an individual develops,
through transactions with other people, his/her specific patterns of
socially relevant behaviors and experience (Zigler snd Child, 1969>;
Or tho process by which Individuals acquire the knowledge, skills and
dispositions that enable them to participate as more or less effective
members of groups and society (Brim and Wheeler, 1966).
A key assumption of the socialization perspective Is that to
understand human behavior, researchers mus specify social origins ov
that behavior and the processes by which It Is learned and maintained
(McLeod and O'Xeefe, 1972). Simply making a roster of the
soda Izatlon Influence upon environmental activists Is viewed as a
difficult and probably dysfunctional task, however, because of their
potentially unlimited number. Instead this research proposes to
Include In this model of the socialization process of environmental
activists only the major categories of Influence variables commonly
used 1,1 socialization research. This model expands upon one of the
few attempts in the literature on environmental attitudes and behavior
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to explain 1n schematic fashion the range of Influences on an
Individual which affect behavior (Sonnefeld, 1972). and an outline of
the major problems In political socialization research (Dennis, 1968).
Figure 1: MODEL OF SOURCES OF INFLUENCE IN THE SOCIALIZATION PROCESS OF
ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVISTS
learning Process
Agencies
Maturation Generation
Action/Reaction Style
a. Cross-cultural Variation
b. Sub-cultural Variation
Interaction
STIMULUS FIELD + INDIVIDUAL
Environmental Activism
Content
Feedback
System Relevance
Environment
Each Influence category describes different Input, but all
Interact In the final socialization process since the Influence
stimuli must go through the Individual before being translated Into
behavior. The model does not emphasize any one Influence category,
until research findings are available to support modeling main effects
The model Is then used as a theoretical framework for organizing
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research that already exists 1n the area of environmental attitudes
and behavior. Here, tho socialization Influence categoric^ are defined
briefly, along with suggestions for their use In future research Into
environmental attitudes and behavior.
SOCIALIZATION IMFLUEMCt CATEGORIES
System Relevance:
When we look at a number of Individuals collectively In a social
movement, we can look at the body of shared knowledge, values,
attitudes and behaviors that set that social movement apart from the
rest of the population. As researchers, we need to discover the body
of shared knowledge and environmental values, attitudes and behavior
which maintains environmental activists as a social movement. We also
need to explore the most effective means of bullying membership In the
c .vlrcnmental movement
Content:
Environmental content Is that Information which Is transmitted to
new members of the environmental movement which results In persistence
of that movement. We need to study variables like environmental
Interest or concern, environmental Information, party IdentUlcatlon,
organization belon, ng and left-wing ideology, but we also need more
explicit analysis of types of environmental content crucial to the
effectiveness of environmental socialization.
Maturation :
If the circu ances of environmental learning are likely to
affect Its character and relative transience or permanence, then we
should also analyze the development of environmental socialization
across the life cycle. The developmental antecedents of social
attitudes and behaviors are the goals of researchers looking at
maturation from a socialization perspective. We will need
longitudinal data bases for this type of research.
Generation :
In a second temporal dimension, generational variation results
from differences In experience of members of society who are born at
different times, and these differences in experiences may become
Incorporated Into the environmental socialization process. The
research problem Is to discover how different each generational
experience has been or Is likely to be and to understand what Impact
this difference and Its effects may have when th3 ne^ generation
participates In ♦ wlronm^ntal natters.
Action-Reaction Style, Cro >: -Cultural Variation:
This Influence area concerns Itself with variation In the
socialization process acros*^ dK erent government systems. One could
conduct cross-cultural comparison research with environmental ^.tlvlsm
In different countries where It exists as well as look for reasons why
environmental activism does not appear to exist In other countries
Action-Reaction Style, Sub Cultural and Group Variati on:
Differences In envlronmeii'cal activism within cultures and between
groups due to sex, socio-economic status, religious preference,
regional and geographical variation and so on are the objects of
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analysis under this influence area. The research questions usually
asked are: How extensive are these differences and how persistent?
The Lea; ,.ing Process :
We need to attempt to formulate a learning model of environmental
learning that goes beyond describing what society (the system, its
agencies, the teachers) does to or for the learne*. Dennis (1968)
suggests the major thrust of past socialization research has been upon
what the society does for the Individual. A different approach would
be to observe the self-adaptive activities of the individual — how he
or she attempts to make sense or an environmental system which he or
she had no part in creating; this may include self-socializing
activities as well as displays of resistance to society's
socialization efforts.
The Agencies :
It is still important to know who teaches what to whom in the
socialization process, so we need to identify which agencies have
roles in given settings. How much influence does each have and what
is the direction of influence? What factors explain the effects that
each agent may have? The answers to these questions could vary from
system to system, stratum to stratum, and early to late life-cycle
periods, depending on how important a role was played by th<t agency.
Interaction :
This influence area includes all social contact with other
individuals since communication is viewed as facilitating
socialization, as well as being a product of that socialization. Mass
media use is included in this area. As researchers, we need to know
media use patterns, information-seeking behavior and which interaction
influences are most important in the socialization process.
Feedback :
This influence area represents th^ individual's awareness of: (1)
the actual efficacy and consequences of action, and (2) responses from
other persons regarding that action. These represent information to
the individual, and ue need to know whether that information could
stimulate further environmental socialization and action or perhaps
lead to inaction.
Environment :
Sources of influence within this category include actual
geographic or spacial reference, physical data and individual
perceptions cf one's natural and man-made or ^-influenced
surroundings. We can analyze whether these pnysical and cognitive
variables may be stimulating or inhibiting the socialization process.
SUMMARY
Researchers in the field of environmental socialization also need
to ask: What are the types of environmental orientations and their
spread over segments of the population? What is the leadership
training and motivation of the "elite" wnvironmentr i activists? Does
this specialist training differ from th^ general environmental
activist socialization process?
The most important task is to summarize the extant literature in
environmental attitudes and behavior, according to the theoretical
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framework offered here. Theory should be used to decide which
virlables to study, and this sort of literature review should Identify
^Teas where we need to direct future research. It should also provide
more solid ground for generalizing about the "alchemy" of
environmental educatlor.
LITEkATURE REVIEW
What follows (available upon request) 1s a summary of research
f Indlrgs.
References
Brin, 0.6. Jr. and Wheelers, S. Socialization After Childhood: Two
Essays. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1966.
Chaffee, S. "The Interpersonal Context of Hass Communication." Kline,
F.J. and Techenor, P.J. ed Current PerspivClves in Hass
Communication Research . 1^ Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1972,
Crittenden, J. "Aging and Party Affiliation." Public Opinion
Quarterl y.
1962, 26, 657.
Lennls, J. "Major Problems of Political Socialization Research."
Midwest Journal of Political Science , 1968, 12(1), 85«ri4.
Gerbner, 6. "Communication and Social Environment." Scientific
American , 1972, 227(3), 152-160.
Gordon, T.F. Mass Media and Socialization: Theoretic Approaches.
Paper presented for the Association for Education In Journalism,
Madison, Wisconsin, August, 1974.
Larsc*., M.A. An Investigation Into Environmental Activism.
Dissertation at the University of Wisconsin, Madison 1980.
i.owenthal, 0. "Research 1n Environmental Perception and Behavior."
Environment and Behavior . 1972. 4(3), 333.
McLeod, J.M, and G'Keef^^ G.J. Jr., "The Socialization Perspective and
Communication Behavior." KUne, F.J. and Tichenor, P.J., ed.
Current Perspectives In Mass Com^.^unl cation Research , Jk Beverly
Hills: Sage Publications. 1972.
Massen, P. "Communication and the Development of Presoclal Behavior."
Asha . 11(5). 1975.
Pettus, A. "Environmental Education and Environmental Attitudes."
Journal of Environmental Education . 1976 8(1), 48*
Schramm, W. Men. Messages, and Media: A Look at Human Communication
New York: Harper and Row, 1973.
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Sonnefeld, J. "Social Interaction and Environmental Relationship."
Environment and Behavior , 1S72, 4(3), 267-277.
Stapp, w.o. "The Concept of Environmental Education." Journal of
Environmental Education , 1969, 1(1), 30.
Ward, S. Consumer Socialization . Paper presented to the Aroer^.can
Psychological Assoc' "^lon, Honolulu, September, 1972.
Wohlwlll, J.F. and Carson, D.H. Environment and the Social Sciences:
Perspectives and Applic at ions. Washington, D.C.: A. P. A., Inc.,
1972, 298.
Zigler, E. and Child, I.L. Socialization. Lindsay, 6. and Aronson,
E., ed. Handbook of Social Psychology . Reading, Mass:
Addison-Wesley, 1969.
X. 6. Lubbers, James 2. "Analysis of College Students' Attitudes
Toward Technology as Related In Environmental Problems."
Assistant Professor of Science Education, SUNY College at
Fredonia, Fredonia, Hew York 14063. USA.
INTRODUCTION
People often view technology as either having caused or able to
solve most environmental prrjlems. Neither extreme Is realistic by
Itself and. In fact, both conditions are valid to an extent. In
courses where the role of technology Is discussed or Implicated In
some relationship to environmental Issues, students may often be
confused or Influenced by the biases Inherent In much of the
Information presented. Understanding such attitudes can be of great
Importance In helping students learn about the causes of and solutions
to environmental problems. Attitudes of students enrolled In Scl 100
(Contemporary loplcs In Science) or Scl 231
(Pollutlon/Envlronment/Soclety) at the State University College at
Buffalo during 1981 to 1963 were examined. The purpose was to compare
the effects of the course content. Identify any trends or changes In
attitudes among students throughout the two-year period, and to
compare over-all attitudes with attitudes of students at Indiana
University (Lubbers, 1984).
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM
It Is a well known fact that technology has both positive and
negative consequences. Unfortunately, many of the negative
consequences have been recognized too little or too late.
Understanding how people feel about technology (broadly defined as
aspects of our technological system) Is an Important first step In
helping people understand environmental problems. The causes of and
solutions to environmental problems Involve a myriad of factors
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relating to technology, any of which can be defined on a contlnum from
•purely system" to "purely Individual" In their orientation. Knowing
which factors are which (cause or solution) and where they fit (system
or Individual) are often open for debate, and depend largely o;i a
person's attitude toward and understanaing of the technological
system. Valid Identification of these factors depends on having a
balanced perspective concerning the role of technology In society, and
any bias for or against technology will automatically $kow one's
perspective. If attitudes can be recognized, and If educators can
promote a little mo^^e consistency among attitudes, the outcome should
be a more streamlined and efficient declslon-maklng process.
Environmental problems have helped people realize the "Faustlan
Bargain" they have with Science and Technology (S&T) where they must
learn to accept the bads with the goods. Since It Is easier \o blame
S&T for the bads (rather than taking responsibility themselves),
Public support for S&T has eroded In recent years*
This change of attitude Is Important for several reasons and
carries with It many Implications for education. First, It Indicates
a fundamental change In the public perception of S&T which must be
reflected In the manner In which S&T Issues are presented In the
classroom. Second, It reflects a better, more abjective balance of
perspectives regarding the Impacts of S&T In society which. In the
long run, should help to minimize the negative Impacts. Although It
can be argued that people cannot maintain an ambivalent or
contradictory position for very long (Bybee, Harms, Ward & Yager,
1980), at least understanding (but not necessarily accepting) other
viewpoints, can lead to earlier resolutions of conflicts. Third, the
change In attitudes signals the realization that all Impacts of S&T,
both positive and negative, must be examined In order to achieve a
rational balance between technological growth and environmental
preservation. In the classroom, educators now have the opportunity
and responsibility to refocus and. In effect, synthesize their
concerns regarding the role of S&T In society.
PROCEDURES
This study was based on the development and validation of a survey
at Indiana University (lU) In 1980, to measure attitudes toward
technology as related to environmental problems (Lubbers, 1984). The
survey was based on the constructs, PRC- and ANTKtechnology, which
would help define attitudes characterized, respectively, as believing
thctt S&T will solve environmental problems, and, that S&T have caused
environmental problems. The survey was administered to a total of ten
sections (5 each) of two different courses (Scl 100 & Scl 231) from
1981 to 1983 at the SUNY College at Buffalo (SUCB). T^le purpose of
this study was to see If a deliberate attempt to present technological
and environmental Issues In a neutral fashion would have any effect on
students* attitudes toward technology, and also, to Identify any
trends over time and to compare the results with attitudes of students
at lU In 1980.
At SUCB, both Scl 231 and Scl 100 were Introductory science
courses taken by a large percentage of the student body, ma'nly to
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meet the science requirement for graduation. Five sections of each
were taught by the Investigator during the period from Fall 1981
through Spring 1983. These courses were designed, within limits, to
address the nature of contemporary problems and Issues facing society,
with Scl 100 focusing on the Impacts of techi^ology, and Scl 231
focusing more on environmental Issues. Since both of these courses
were "science* courses, It was predicted that the results would be
similar and woulO most closely match those of students enrolled In
E200 (Environment and People) at lU. Also, at lU, there was little
change In attitudes during a one-semester period, so significant
change In attitudes among students at SUCB was not expected.
Regarding the two-year time ^raroe of administering the survey at SUCB,
each class was a matched pre-post measure with that group of
students--no attempt was made to measure attitudes of the same
students over the two-^year period. The net effect was simply a larger
sample of students. No trends were evident for the period 1981 to
1983 for students enrolled In either course.
Responses to the 28-1tem Likert scale were coded 1 through 5 for
strongly agree/agree/neutral/dlsagree/strongly disagree by each
student. Mean percentage response distributions (PROs) and subscale
means for the 14 Items of each subscale, PRO and ANTI, were used to
characterize attitudes. Since there were no significant differences
between attitudes of students In either class or among students In
different semesters, data for all ten sections were combined for a
total H of 215. The results were examined for pre and post changes and
compared with responses of students at Indiana University (E200
students only, N of 95) .
RESULTS
For students enrolled In E220 at !U and for students enrolled In
both courses at SUCB, changes In attitudes were very small pre to
post but were In the "right" direction. For both groups (lU&SUCB) the
mean PRDs and subscale means were "less extreme" on the posttest than
on the pretest. Extreme agreement or disagreement with the Items on
either subscale was considered to suggest an unrealistic attitude
toward technology as related to environmental problems. The most
extreme case would be If all respondents were to completely agree or
disagree with all Items on one subscale and do the opposite on the
other. This would illustrate an absolute Imbalance of perceived
differences In the two roles of technology— causing or solving
problems. A more realistic Interpretation of attitudes would be to
recognize a baseline condition or generally accepted and prevalent
attitude toward technology where there Is some degree of ambivalence
present. This situation would be characterized Ideally by lOOX
agreement on both subscales, PRO and ANTI. Since such results could
not be expected realistically, a best case effect of course content In
changing attitudes would be to strive for matched means and PRDs on
both subscales regardless of absolute percentage values. Such 1s the
case with the data derived from both study groups. There Is greater
agreement with the PRO subscale than with the ANTI subscale for the
pretest, but the values are about the same for posttest, thus
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reflecting an "Improved" balance of attitudes.
Subscale means were also used as a method for describing attitudes
as measured by the survey. Item means on each subscale were averaged
to provide subscale means for each group pre and post. Any value less
than 3.000 would Indicate agreement with that subscale* and, as with
the mean PRDs» Identical values on the two subscales would Indicate a
balance of perspectives, whether agreeing or disagreeing. The means,
as you would guess from the PROs, were closer In value for the
posttest than for the pretest for both study groups.
There were no significant differences pre to post. However,
resfjlts for the two study groups are very similar. Both Illustrate
slightly l*ss agreement with the PRO Items pre to post, and slightly
greater agreement with the ANTI Items pre to post. In addition to the
consistency between the two groups as measured by the survey, these
results also suggest that attitudes toward technology are relatively
uniform among selected college students from different parts of the
nation and have remained quite stable among that age group since 1980.
SUMMARY
Support for technology has traditionally been somewhat stronger
(NSB, 1981; Taviss, 1972). The bindings here and by others (Bybee, rt
al., 1980; Etzloni & Nunn, 1974; NAEP, 1979) would suggest that this
support Is on the decline, especially among the younger generations.
In that an "antl* technology attitude is becoming a major concern.
Increasing ambivalence may be an In^rovement as long as It doesn't
become a problem Vi and of Itself In generating Indifference or
confusion. With luck, anyone who begins to see the dilemma facing
society, will also realize that something must be done about It.
Understanding atdtudes toward the role of technology Is an Important
first step In helping educators meet the needs of people as well as
society.
Deliberate attempts to present a balanced perspective regarding
the Impacts of technology on the environment and on the way wa live
can lead to a more rational and realistic understanding of the role of
technology In society (Lubbers, 1981). Such an u'-derstandlrg can. In
turn, possibly help us 1de:it1fy the causes of the many problems facing
society and perhaps Improve our ability to solve them. If these
perspectives get out of balance. It Is plausible that the natural
environment will get the short (shorter?) end of the trade-offs
between technological growth and the preservation of the natural
environment.
If we do not become more environmentally responsible, our ability
to modify the world will be severly diminished for us through natural
limits to growth. We must recognize our dependence upon both the
natural and built environments In every decision we make.
REFERENCES
Rybee, R., Harms, N., Ward. B , & Yager, R. 1980. "Science, Society,
and Science Education." Science Education , 64:3, 377-395.
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319
TavUs, I. 1972. "A Survey of Popular Attitudes Toward Technology.
Technology and Culture , 13:4, 606-621*
Etz1on1, A., and Nunn, C. ^9'^4. "The Public Appreciation of Science
In Contemporary America.-* Daedulus . 103:3, 191-205
Lubbers, J. 1981. "SET Literacy: A Goal for the Perplexed." In
Current Issues In Environmental Education and Environmental
Studies VII , 95-99.
Lubbers, J. 1984. Identification and Characterization of Students'
Attitudes Toward Technology as Related to Environmental Problems .
Ed.D. Dissertation, Indiana university.
National Assessnnent of Educational Progress. 1979. Attitudes Toward
Science. (Chapter 2, Science and Society), 25-72.
National Sciences Boaru\ 1981, Science Indicators 1980 . 158-179.
X. H Mills, Terence J. and Francis Fendersen. "Children's Concept
of Earth: Preconception for Understanding the Biosphere."
Professor of Science Education, Director, Natural Resources
and Environmental Education Center, 306 Gunderson Hall,
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, USA;
Public School Teacher, Ponca City, Oklahoma 74601, USA.
What an experience It would be to step out Into space and view the
earth 1n this way, to visualize for the first time our planet as a
whole. How sobering It must be to realize the earth's unique position
1n the solar system. How much more we might appreciate and value our
relat1on:a1p to the envelope of life and the planet It surrounds If we
could take this viewpoint? Unfortunately, at present, this experience
Is reserved for the select few who have traveled In space. Being
earth bound, how does one develop a holistic view and appreciation of
our planet?
Investigating elementary children's understanding or "notion" of
earth Is the focus of the research presented here. From an
educational standpoint, development of the earth notion has
significance for Instruction and curriculum development In the social
sciences as well as the physical and biological sciences. The
concepts of earth's shape, gravity and position In space are included
In the study of subjects such as geography, history, astronomy,
physics and ecology, to mention a few. Perhaps most Important 1s the
significance of the earth notion to concepts In the field of
environmental education. Our earth Is a finite body In space.
Children all around the world must grasp this Idea before we can
expect them to deal with the Interdisciplinary aspects of
environmental education and the necessity of International cooperation
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for conservation of resources and pollution control. The awakening of
a sound envlronniental and conservation ethic may ue predicated by the
development of a notion of earth as a finite body In space.
Armed with the knowledge of how we develop our concept of earth we
iiiay better apply our collective efforts to maintain and appreciate
that which sustains us.
The Intent of this study was to Identify earth notions held by
elementary students In a rural Oklahoma community and some of the
significant Independent variables related to development of these
earth notions. Using the structured Individual Interview procedures
suggested In previous studies on earth notion. It was possible to
identify and categorize the earth notions of Kindergarten, 2nd, 4th,
and 6th grade students. Results of these Interviews support the
finding of past research. Children In rural, U.S^A. hold generally
the same notions of earth as did children In other studies.
Suprlslngly, the distribution In the rural U.S.A. sample was skewed
more toward upper notion levels than was the distribution In previous
research. This seems to support the Idea of greater development of
spatial perceptual ability for rural children. However,
Interpretation of the results must not overlook possible
discrepancies. The pre-lntervlew activities conducted to ensure
better rapport with the U.S.A. children may also have Improved the
responses.
A number of Independent variables have been Included In past
research to help account for the variance In earth notions by children
nd have been found to be significantly related. Of these, age, sex,
grade, parents' years of education, achievement scores, verbal
ability, and spatial ability were Included In this study In an effort
to further validate these findings. Although support was found for
the significance of all of the above sources of variance, verbal
ability, spatial ability, achievement scores, and sex were determined
to be the more reliable predictors of notion Tevel. Other studies had
not looked extensively Into the sources of Information In the home and
school contributing to earth notion (with exception of Hall).
However, both were found to be statistically significant In this
study. The parent and teacher surveys were successful In Identifying
Important experiences children have been exposed to, and further
development and refinement of these Instruments should be continued.
There Is a degree of readiness for earth notion subject matter as
early as kindergarten. In the kindergarten saiiple, 18 percent were
classified at level 4 and another 13.6 percent neld notions 2 or 3.
Of those kindergarteners who demonstrated a relatively high
understanding of earth concepts, most had been exposed to a wide
variety of family experiences In the home. Including travel, books,
science museums and esp<^c1ally discussions with parents.
Meny experiences, although Intended to clarify meaning and further
the child's understanding, may In fact further elaborate their
misconception. The 6th graders In this study may be an example of
such a case. Twenty-^slx percent of the 6th graders Interviewed
believed we live Inside the earth (Earth r'>t1on level II). These
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Students were generally average In verbal ability and achievement
scores. How did these preconceotions develop? These students had
received forenal instruction beginning in 2nd grade and yet their
understanding is seen as conceptually naive when compared with
external criteria. One surprising explanation for this anomaly came
during a discussion about why they believe we live on a flat surface
into the middle of the sphere. Several students related their
experience in 5th grade of visiting a planetarium. They talked about
how the sky looked curved and how we were In the middle. It seems
very possible that the root of their alternative framework was the
experience of seeing the sky projected on a curved celling with a flat
floor at the planetarium. We can see here the Importance of exposing
these ideas before they become stable and the foundation o?i which the
child attempts to assimilate later learning. Although this
explanation is yet untested, the Implications should be of special
interest to planetarium directors and all instructors alike.
The emphasis in the earth notion research to date has been placed
primarily on understanding the development of children's concepts,
improving methods for exposing their ideas and developing better
instructional strategies. The Importance of the sa^'th concept Itself,
although It may have been implied, has been a secondary emphasis. As
advances in technology continue and as natural resources become moi^"
and more a limiting factor, the significance of this basic concept
becomes increasingly clear.
Children develop basic attitudes at a young age, and when those
attitudes are guided by major misconceptions, the effect may be
carried into adulthood where significant resource management decisions
are influenced. The research reported hero supports previous studies
showing the prevalence of alternative frameworks in children of many
ages even after receiving formal instruction. Attitude toward the
earth's resources and a sustained high quality of life will be
influenced by how we perceive our planet. Although it has not been
the purpose of this study to investigate children's attitudes toward
the earth, the need for such research is evident.
Future Exploration
A number of unanswered questions surfaced as a result of this
study. For example, during interviews with K and 2nd grade children,
the influence of older siblings on younger children's level of
understanding was sometimes mentioned. This source of variance needs
further investigation either as part of the earth notion Interview or
as part of the home survey.
It has been suggested that the interview itself may be
instructional. Therefore, an experimental design with an interview
followed by another interview one to two months later could offer
important suggestions for development of improved instructional design.
Textbook authors and environmental curriculum planners should
consider the major preconceptions of children when developing
curriculum materials. Teachers' guides need to include ideas for
sequential concrete experiences for teaching concepts such as earth's
shape, gravity and position in space. Existing texts should be
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analyzed to determioe contents that contribute to earth notion
development. It would be beneficial to have discrepant event
activities included in texts to create cognitive dissonance and
stimulate children's accommodation of a more mature earth concept.
Classroom teachers must become aware of children's preconceptions
before beginning any environmental education. It cannot assume that
because a concept was covered last year the child has accomodated the
necessary learning free of major misconceptions. It Is essential to
begin where the child Is and this requires more listening on the part
of teachers to assess this level. Correct answers on paper and pencil
tasKs are not always the best measure of the child's true level of
understanding. As suggested in other studies, the Plagetian clinical
interview method should ba utilized more often by classroom teachers
to assess student progress. For example, two students expressed a
belief that gravity is in the atmosphere pushing things down.
This kind of preconception must be identified by the classroom
teacher, in fact, adriitional interview questions need to be Included
which explore this or Keption. It is very possible that other
level 4 children may i e held this idea however it was not Identified
in this study.
Kindergarten children must not be ignored! Other studies found
2nd graders with definite alternative frameworks already in place.
These ideas certainly had their roots In much earlier experiences.
Any real attempt to understand the development of the earth concept
and its influencing factors should begin before major preconceptions
develop. Developing a rich base of experiences at the primary and
preschool level will certainly enhance the growth of preconceptions
compatible with mature concepts. An environmental earth notion
teaching unit should be develop^u and tested in kindergarten.
The curious question of the effect of trips to the planetarium on
children's notions of earth will require further study before any
serious conclusions may be drawn. A pre-interview followed by a
planetarium trip and post Interview would be a good place to start.
Perhaps one group might have some preparatory remarks prior to the
planetarium show to sensitize them to the discrepancy in their
|,erception uhile another group would receive no explanation. The
possibility that the planetarium environment promotes developing a
level two earth notion needs Investigation.
Finally, and perhaps most important, children's attitudes toward
conservation of resources, the biosphere or other environmental issues
could be correlated with earth notion. Would children with less
egocentric views of the earth have more positive attitudes toward
conservation of natural resources? If so, this would add real support
to the importance of developing level V earth notions in students. In
addition, the earth concept's place in research and curriculum
development, especially in enviroo'nental education, would be given
appropriate emphasis.
The study reported here supports research from California, New
York, Israel, and Nepal. Regardless of the cultural setting of the
sophistication of the population, major alternative conceptual
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frameworks of the earth do exist. In addition, It would seem that
children worldwide develop similar notions about the earth. Educators
concerned with promoting a greater understanding and appreciation of
our planet, earth, should find the research presented and cited here
of special Interest. We must Join In a global effort to understand
the nature of development of the earth concepts In children and the
relevant experience promoting development of these concepts. With
this knowledge we may have greater educational Impact on children who
upon becoming adults must make responsible decisions concerning the
resources of a finite earth.
X. I Nelson. Ray A. "Cognitive Models for Developing Global
Perspectives on Environmental Problems." Professor of
Education, Bemldjl State University, Bemldji, Minnesota
56601, USA.
A visitor from another plant observing the American System of
Education might easily conclude that In the beginning "God created the
discipline." Since the earliest population explosion (In the
B1b1e-where the begating begins!) humankind has seen fit to divide,
dissect and parcel out the "Body of Knowledge" for convenience sake.
We have become experts at creating "experts " who have In depth
knowledge greater than the world has ever known! Indeed we need those
experts but In our rush to create knowledgeable experts we have failed
to stress the connections between disciplines.
Harlan Cleveland (1984), Director of the Hubert Humphrey Institute
or Public Affairs, University of Minnesota put It this way, "we have
gotten very good at producing experts. But the limiting factor to our
civilized energies Is our capacity to get It all together .to relate
the parts of the whole... to see the Interconnections among the
disparate 'facts', to play the Intervals as well as the notes. The
linportant thing about any process Is not Its Isolated components; what
makes them dynamic Is the connections between and among them ."
In yet another context John Nalsbitt (1983) In his best selling
book Megatrends echoes Cleveland's contention by stating: "We are
moving from a specialist who Is soon obsolete to the generallst who
can adapt."
In the modern highly technical world we live In today
specialization 1s very useful but also creates tremendous problems 1n
solving our problems. Specialists fall into the trap of trying to
solve problems as If they are Isolated and not related to anything
else.
Pollution for example Is a natural, social, economic and political
problem. A solution to a problem such as pollution must take Into
account these factors and consider long term, bread based ecologically
sound solutions Instead of short term seemingly simple solutions.
In summary, onr educational systems must teach the basics 1n a
global perspective and to be more effective our specialists need also
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to be generallsts. It 1s this writer's thesis that to deal with the
global environmental problems we need people who can process,
synthesize, and Interrelate the various aspects of environmental
problems (social, political, economic and scientific). To assist the
learner In this difficult and somewhat foreign tasllc we will take a
look at some cognitive process models that may help In Interrelating
and Internalizing global Information.
The process of relating factual knowledge Into a coherent vehicle
In /Gives a number of components. Probably the first and most
Important Is a scheme for taking in and categorizing knowledge so that
It can eventually be processed and Internalized.
Figure 1
Individual Model
Social Emotional
Intellectual Physical Body of knowledge
If one visualizes the four circles In Figure 1 as wheels an a car
representing various known components of the Individual and therefore
the sum total Body of Knowledge about Individuals then the
Inter-relatlonshlps begin to appear. For example, suppose for a
moment you had a broken leg (Just suppose)! To study the total Impact
on you of a broken leg we would plug the event Into the physical wheel
of the car. It becomes obvious immediately that the damaged physical
wheel of the car causes difficulties for the other three models and
thus the operation of tne total vehicle (you). Damage any other wheel
of the car and the results are the same.
Let's assume for a moment that each of us Is a microcosm mirroring
the world (mecrocosm). Using the analogy of the world and Its parts
as a macrocosm and fitting It In to the "car" paradigm (Figure 2} one
begins to see the Interrelatedness of all things.
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Figure 2
Soil
H20
Lifekind
Body of knowledge
Using the analogy of the self as a car being a rolcroview and the
earth as the macrovlew one can make the "cognitive leap* of viewing
an life processes in the same car analogy framework.
Using a "cognitive" leap to relate a microcosm to a macrocosm one
can see the interrelatedness of all things. (Figure 3)
By Injuring a wheel of the paradigm one alters the functioning of
the whole.
The world is an extremely complex interrelated system. Our
lifestyle and technology has given us the means to knowingly as well
as unknowingly tamper with it.
Pollute the environment and all life will have to readjust
accordingly.
Let's reverse the process of thinking our world to pieces, and
start thinking the world back together again.
Cleveland, Harlan. "Telecommunications and the Global Society."
Address given to the Global Crossroads Conference Shoreham Hotel,
Washington, O.C. 5-18-84, the Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public
Affairs, 1984.
Hclnnis, Noel and Albrecht, Do. "What Hakes Education
Environmental." Louisville, Kentucky: Data Courier. Inc., 1975.
Nalsbilt, John. '•Megatrends", New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1982.
Figure 3
Microcosm
Cognitive Leap
Macrocosm
References
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X. J. Peterson, Ervand M. "A Research Alternative In Environmental
Education." visiting Tutcr at Deakin University In Geelong,
Victoria, Australia. Present address: 2213 Magnolia Ave.,
Petal uma, California 94952, USA.
PriT to the 16th cantury most of the planet's population viewed
the wo. J as organic. Individually and as groups, people related to
nature In organic relationships shaped by spiritual and physical
phenomena. The Church and Aristotle were the authorities of this view
and the frameworic which defined It. This science was r(;:«;ed In reason
and faHh, seeking to ultimately understand che meaning and
significance of things. In the 16fi century this loving, organic, and
spiritual universe was replaced by that of a great machine.
It was Francis Bacon who proposed that society should begin
building a true method of the universe such as It Is In fact, not as a
man's own reason would have It be. This method or way of representing
the universe would be In the fashion of mechanics, where there Is a
"true" model; one that Is beyond man's own reason, one that can
provide an objective understanding of the workings cf the universe.
Bacon proposed that this objective knowledge rfould allow people
command over things natural - over bodies, medicine, mechanical
powers, and Infinite others of this kind.
Isaac Newton adopted this mechanical view and applied Its
principles to the phenaiiena Df nature dealing with material In motion
and mathematical methods to xplain the universe. John Locke, the
British empiricist, further applied these Ideas to knowledge and Its
assessment, seeking to analyze not the extent, but the certainty of
our knowledge, he argued that primary qualities of existence - bulk,
shape, and motion - could be measured, thus establishing certainty
abOMt the object.
John Stuart MIM further ingrained the material and qechanlcal
world view upon society. Mill states that "all things possess
quantity; consist of parts wMch can be numbered; and In that
character possess all properties which are caMed properties of
numbers." These wltlngs supported Newton's work and the deductive
character of the physical sciences which ied to presenting the
universe as all phenomena operating In accordance with mathematical
laws. Thus the world became a part of Bacon's "true" model In which
an objective quantifiable understanding was paramount - the scientific
metho d.
The scientific method has four criteria which emerge as central;
objectivity, measurement, control, and generallzablllty. The goai Is
prediction oriented toward the discovery of theories that anticipate
future occurrences with maximum probability.
It Is this reductlonlstic approa-h and tradition of classifying
that Is linked to the development of science as an Ideology and the
sciences of medicine, biology, physics, economics, etc. This practice
has continued to be refined and accepted by society to where "science"
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327
1s viewed as "the" reality anc£ "real" research.
Gregory Bateson made the following conments concerning present day
education and research as "obsolete" referring to:
What Bacon, Locke, and Newton gave to the physical sciences is out
of date in 3 different ways: Pragmatically, It Is clear that
these premises and their corollaries lead to greed, monstrous
over-growth, war, tyranny, and pollution* . .
Intellectually, the premises are obsolete In that systems theory,
cybernetics, holistic medicine, ecology, and Gestalt psychology
offer demonstrably better ways of understanding the world of
biology and behavior, c^ As a base for religion, such premises
become clearly Intolerable and therefore obsolete abo; t 100 years
ago. In the 18th century, William Elake saw thft the philosophy
of Locke and Newton could only generate 'dark satanIc mills'
(Bateson, 1979).
Bateson expresses the need to move away from the present mechanical
view of the universe. The posltlvlstic Image of the world Is
unnatural; we must delve more deeply Into the actual patterns of the
universe.
Bob Sample states that the world ^s an open s^'stem which operates
on the premise of Inclusion, not exclusion as In a olosed system. The
former being holistic, self-ger-^ratlng, and repattei nable, while the
latlsr Is digital and linear.
In the Western tradition we operate In a reductive mode - breaking
larger preconceptions down Into components. We like the pieces,
rather than wholes. The result Is "^a kind of philosophical chauvinism
that ends In an elitism of reasons." (Samples, 1982).
Consequently, truth and fact have become that which fits into the
\forld of pulleys, levers, and falling objects. Thus our view of
reality has become closed and fixed and we are not accepting of open
systems as having "value" or of being able to study them as "science".
The f:1tuat1ons In which environmental education occurs are open
systems - nature centers, park trails, classrooms, :ommun1ty meetings,
etc. They cannot be dissected Into components and inen assigned
Integers - these are holistic life phenomena which require different
strategies and philosophy of re*^earch.
One approach which offers a .nore holistic view Is a
phenomenologlcal/qualltatlve methodology. Philosophically,
phenomenology uces not view subjects as being passive part^ *pant$
capable cf being ^manipulated but as Individuals who are Inteiitlonal
and conscious beings.
A seconr< tenet Is that of the llvcd-world, the everyday world of
values, purposes, rules, social organizations, other people, social
roles, etc., all components real to us In our everyday lives. It Is
by going into vhls world that we gain an understanding of It. By
becoming one with It If to understand Its meanings or reality *n at
once, encountering the life-world and movTng with It, not ilsst *^1ny
It Into components.
This requires the researcher to become a part of the sce^e In
order to analyze it through methods of observation or In-depth
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Interviews. Gaining an understanding of the context Is one of the
tasks of the researcher - this Is always affected by that moment In
time, as well as by the experiences that the researcher and Informants
share.
The fourth tenet Is the concept of bracketing. As we bring with
us our baggage of previous experiences, history, prejudices, and
prejudgements, we cannot deny their existence. The qualitative
researcher cultivates the skill of acknowledging, critically
examining, and attempting to temporarily suspend these
preconceptions. S/be studies prior research and theory bist attempts
to look at the phenomenon with fresh eyes until experiences with the
research setting suggests its relevance. Thus by suspending, or
"bracketing" these and laying time out for oneseH and the reader, the
researcher puts his/her Interpretation In a proper context.
A fifth Issue Is the dialoglcal nature that Is essential to the
research process. Through the dialoglcal process mutual understanding
Is reached by the researcher and subject. It Is the result of
exchange and naming of the world that the Inner world Is revealed to
the researcher.
The next concept Is that ot process versus product. It Is by
revealing the Insights, wisdom, and understanding the situation that
the reader and researcher determines applications from research.
There Is not dependence on "experts" to create theories and laws from
above, but a belief that ordinary people are capable of producing
knowledge and analyzing it.
Finally the presentation emphasis Is on communication to
researcher and layperson alike. The style Is more literary than
hidden In Jargon and pretentiousness, it seeks tJ paint a picture of
the situation Including Lextures, colors, feelings, etc. - a rich
account of experience rather than a superficial one.
In conclusion this qualitative approach Is well suited for
environmental education as It f.eeks to reveal the Integrated nature of
our world and the participants who shape it. Environmental education
situations are so variable that researchers must be sensitive to the
uniqueness there and become one with It to understand and reveal Its
essence.
X. K. Puntenney, Pamela 3. "Environmental Education and a
Responsive Pol Icy-Making Process: Pattern of an Essential
Alliance." Environmental Education Consultant, Research
Associate, School of Natural Resources, The University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.
"rhink Globally, Act Locally"... "Man and the Biosphere". . ."Global
Ecosystems "..."One Earth". . ."Development Strategies", familiar phrases
to environmental educators and seemingly an enigma when viewed within
the larger context of organizational efforts. Continued environmental
degradation and rising concern for the "Quality of Life", shifting
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329
population dynamics, Increasing technological Innovation* and growlig
resource dependencies have and will continue to evoke liajor changes In
social and economic frameworks. Since this Interactive and rapidly
changing set of cultural and environmental Influences shapa the
direction of policies and programs* there Is an Increased need for the
development of responsive structures* especially In the area of
knowledge systems* But where does ^nvlronmenta! education fit?
The relationship between pedagogy and environment Is very complex
and Its past riddled with notions about disseminating and Implementing
environmental programs* As members of a global community* our avenues
for education are but one small focsl point when the environment, botn
natural and man-made permeates the life cf the organUetlon and then
goes out through the Individuals who share Its various activities back
Into the larger society. Within this framework* our avenues for
educating are more tnan their structural components. Thv*y are
cornnunltles of values derived from th'^ meaning of the wor'^d as
experienced by Its participants.
What Is new and what Is my particular aim here Is te ma.
dimensions of envlronme/ital education In an organizational );text and
to suggest Wat decision-makers Incorporate a responsive view of
environmental learning into the repertoire of perspectives on planning
and management strategies. The discussion will focus on several
questions: What constitutes a responsive policy-making perspective?
What are the essential pv'ocesses and contexts of learning In
environmental education? And In «^at ways are organizational
priorities linked to environmental education? While this effort Is
necessarily expi^>ratory the purpose Is to broadly consider what a
knowledge systems^ view of environmental learning might entail.
EE 1s Part of a laroer Picture
The Idea of learning strategy rests upon the premise that
environmental education Is not an event per se but a process.
Environmental education Is essentially concerned with developing
educational structures that will allow people to learr throughout
their lives acquiring skills necessary "to work Individually and
collectively ' rd solutions of current problems and the prevention
of new ones", m his article "One Nan*s Luxury Is Another Man's Need:
How Education Can Sharpen Our Awareness of Environmental Issues",
Peter Fensham IndlCr^^'is that these Issues Involve: "social values,
political organlzr ^s* economic policies and structures^
technological conx. i and development, and national and International
patterns of distributing resources". This list suggests that
organizations Interested In educating people about the environment
should not be Isolated from the community and implies that their
efforts should be socially based.
The environmental education movement has atteinpted to provide thU
Impetus. Examples can be cited of great Improvements In educational
efforts but some key problems persist that suggest that FF Is not a
package to replace current priorities In an existing system or
organizational effort but Is a crucial aspect of a larger picture.
Since EE Is a process that Includes not only the natural but also
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the social system that has Its own Inherent dynamics. It Is an
approach to education that Involves more than a particular mandate,
training package, currlculim design, or specific project. It Is a
process essentially based upon relationships between the educator and
the learner.
Julius Nyerere, President of Tanzania, explains that self-reliance
Is the key because people cannot be developed or educated. They must
develop and educate themselves through a process of thinking,
problem-solving, and acting. Problems have arisen with many
International programs and projects because the educational component
has been based upon old models that Impose knowledge and values.
Existing local or Indigenous knowledge systems have been ignored or
even undermined. These pre-domlnate models assume that X's knowledge
needs up-dat1n^< and If one Just supplies that new Information people's
behavior will change. The consequence of this approach Is that the
chances of success are limited. The strength In Nyerere's vision Is
that It points to alternative paths for envlroraft^ntal educators based
upon the Integration of knowledge with pers(mal experience.
Knowledg e Systems and Oroanl7at1onal Effectiveness
The dynamic and Interacting environmental factors point to the
need for like models of education that are responsive to the rapid
changes In environmental understanding and conditions. Rather than a
single knowledge base, there Is a need for knowledge systems coi^rlsed
of an array of sources of Information. Oavid Hughes-Evans points out
that schemes for holistic approaches to resolving the dilemma of how
to begin to effectively address the complexity of environmental
problems have emerged through such documents as the World Conservation
Strategy developed by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources (lUCH) and Mankind at the Turning , the
second report of the club of Rome. But sc far the educational
Implications oi what has been proposed have not been adequately
defined. As the tension builds between the benefits and costs of our
environmental choices, the demand Increases for the need to know how
to learn. The education of the public and the training and retraining
of professionals and dec 1 son-makers requires educational mechanisms
that are a vehicle for keeping pace with rapid changes.
As organizations grapple with this Issue, several models are
emerging. From the business community, Mitroff suggests strategic
planning using a stakeholders analysis. Schon explores professional
knowledge and purports the idea of ref lectlon-ln-actlon through
Intuitive knowing. From the International arena, Drake et. al. show
how useful Insights that yield a variety of planning and Intervention
approaches must be based upon contextual and situational Information.
Models and Issues are continuing to emerge around the notion of
knowledge systems and effective action becau-e the s^.akes are higher
and the costs greater for not being able to respond appropriately.
Each calling forth the Important role participatory learning plays In
understanding complex realities and deciding on a plan of action. So
as environmental educators what Is our plan? Are we fully aware of
how we can form the necessary links between our alms and the
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priorities of society's systems such as literacy for formal schooling
or long term change through development projects or corporate vitality?
Patterns
In studying the Oxfordshire, England system of education several
key factors emerge that suggest the foundation for a learning strategy
for environmental education* They are as follows:
1) M vehicle for communication Is the lateral transmission and
sharing of knowledge;
2) The role of education Is based upon Integrating personal
experience with knowledge;
3) The focus of educating people about the environment Is not on
teaching and the Imparting of knowledge, rather It Is on
learning practices and knowledge systems.
4) Environmental education Is not an event per se but a
process. Mence It Is comprised of relationships that
orchestrate learning strategies.
And In response to the First Intergovernmental Conference on
Environmental Education, 1977:
The notion of problem solving should be founded on the Interest of
the learner. Before 'Environmental Education can help people
acquire an awareness of a sensitivity to the total environment and
Its allied problems" and enable people to make decisions and to
take action, the process must begin with the learner^s awareness
and sensitivity to some aspect of the surrounding environment.
I.e. what they personally experience. Problem-solving Is
developed through the learner •s powers. Self-reliance, learning
how to learn, expressing Ideas through a variety of mediums, and
success are examples of factors that contribute to a responsive
policy-making process and organizational effectiveness. These
result In the development of problem*solv1ng skills such as
learning to assess Information, being able to recognize and
confidently utilize one's own personal knowledge and creative
abilities, and developing a repertoire of communication skills.
Therefore, It Is essential that the learner's viewpoint be
Incorporated Into the carrying-out of a broad-based responsive
policy-making structure vhat provides opportunities that
capitalize on this source of knowledge Integration; this viewpoint
Is valuable especially as an Integral piece of Information for
those charged with designing and developing methods, training
programs, and an array of learning materials to facilitate the
process.
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332
X. L. Robottoffl, Ian. "Evaluation In Environmental Education: Time
for Change In Perspectives?" Lecturer, School of Education.
Oeakln University. Victoria 3217, Australia.
I^JSI^mfcry/uCTS"*^^ education is closely associated with the work
of the UNESCO/UMEP program in environmental education. The landmark
events of modern environmental education were the conference at
Belgrade (1975) and Tbilisi (1977), and the language of the
environmental education movement Is still dominated by that of the
Belgrade Charter. One of eight "trend papers" presented at
Influential working sessions at Belgrade was on the topic of
evaluation In environm ental education . The question addressed here Is
wfiether the environmental movement Is now In need of a change In
perspective In evaluation.
The environmental education movement since Belgrade has had a
chequered history, with contestation at various levels. There has
been contestation at the level of language (does the essence of
environmental education reside In Its "education about the
environment" form, or In Its "education fsL the environment" form?)-
at the level of organization (is Improvement In environmental
education programs best achieved through centre-periphery approaches
or through local school initiatives?); and at the level of practice '
(what Is the relationship between conventional teaching patterns and
environmental education?)
The Belgrade trend paper on evaluation In environmental education
was written at a time when considerable contestation and
reconceptuallzatlon was also occurring In the field of educational
evaluation. The ^o,^ of the dominant quantlvatlve,
scientific/analytic approach to evaluation (rightly exemplified In the
Belgrade trend paper as "the state of art") became contested by
Interpretive and critical approaches. Methodological Issues debated
In this ongoing period of reconceptuallzatlon In the field of
educational evaluation Include epistemologlcal dllenwas (Is It
reasonable to surtain a notion of objective knowledge?), ethical
dilemmas (whose Interests Is the evaluation serving?), and procedural
dilemmas (where does the locus of control of the evaluation reside?)
However, developments In the field of environmental education appear'
to have been Insulated from the influences of these debates In the
field of educational evaluation. As the recent review of research In
environmental education conducted by the NAEE shows, the dominant
paradigm of evaluation In environmental education remains
"scientific/analytic".
The proposition has been advanced (see "Editorial", Journal of
Environmental Education. Summer 1982) that the appropriateness of
conventional approaches to evaluation of environmental education needs
to be regarded as problematic. The Intention In this paper Is to
address this proposition by considering the resonances between two
different perspectives to evaluation ^n the one hand, and
commonly-accepted characteristics of environmental education on the
other. Both perspectives to evaluation (scientific/analytic and
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critical) win be considered In respect of their eplstemology, locus
of control, and Interests served In short. In respect of their
•political theory V Finally, the argunient win be advanced that the
choice )f evaluation paradlgii for environmental education wni be a
deliberate one based on the relationship between the *pont1ca1
theory" of the evaluation, and the Intentions of the program to be
evaluated.
Scientific/Analytic Approaches to Evaluation
Scientific/analytic approaches are typically used to determine
the effectiveness of a program. Congruence between goals and outcomes
Is measured quantitatively and presaiud as an Indicator of program
effectiveness. The evaluation design Is one In which learners are
pre-tested and post-t€sted, and attempts are made to Identify and
control most of the variables In the educational setting; the effect
of the experimental variable (a changed activity In a program, or a
"new" program) In achieving the program's obje4;t1ves Is determined.
The Instruments used to measure student performance are developed by
the researchers; an appropriate statistic Is employed to measure for
statistically significant shifts In student performance In the groups
"exposed" to the materials o"" activities of the program.
Scientific/analytic approaches to evaluation are frequently used In
the context of a centrally-controlled process of development of new
curriculum materials (as In "Research, Development, Diffusion,
Adoption" models).
Critical approaches to evaluation
Critical approaches to evaluation are represented here by action
research . Action research Is a participatory, democratic form of
educational research for educational Improvement* Action research
recognizes that teaching, and educational practice In general. Is
complex, problematic and uncertain and takes place a context that
1s complex, changeable and political. It Is characterized by a method
comprising recurrent cycles of three phases. There Is a Planning
phase, in which existing personal practice Is regarded as problematic
- the individual teacher looks for dissatisfactions, or areas with
room for Improvement, In his/her own teaching. "Dissatisfactions" and
"Improvement" are terms whose meaning Is embedded In theoretical
discourse about the nature and purposes of the Innovation the sense
1n which a partlcuUr practice can be Improved can be traced to a
particular conception of the Innovation held by the teacher. What Is
"planned" In this phase Is a teaching/learning activity In which It Is
possible to exercise or manifest the sought-after Improvement. The
"Action" ^nase occurs when the plan Is put Into practice In an
educational setting. In addition to trying to manifest a desired
Improvement In a teaching/learning activity, the teach-»r organizes a
means of monitoring what takes place In that process (for example, the
activity may be videotaped or audlotaped). The means of monitoring
must be capable of detecting and recording when in Improvement {In the
teacher's own terms; has occurred. The third phase Is "Reflection" :
1n this phase, the data collected from monitored action Is analyzed.
In particular, the teacher reflects critically on the relationship of
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his or her practice (the monitored action) and h1s/he»- view of the
Innovation (the "theory* of Innovation).
Action research, then, Is Mediated by praxis , a process of
critical reflection upon personal practice engaged in by the teacher.
It alms at personal Improvement through praxis applied at the level of
thought and action; It also alms at program and Institutional
Improvement.
X. M. Stevenson, Bob. "Curriculum Materials for United States and
Australian Schools: An Explanation of the Theory-Practice 6ap
In Environmental Education?". Wisconsin Center for Education
Research, University of U1sconson>Nad1son, School of Education,
1025 West Johnson Street, Madison 53706, USA.
The Theory-Practice Dlleiiwa
A number of authors have noted a discrepancy between
Internationally accepted objectives for environmental education, as
expressed In the Belgrade Charter and the Tbilisi Intergovernmental
Conference Report, and the objectives emphasized In school programs 1»i
both the United States (Childress, 1978; Hungerfard, Peyton &W11ke,
1980) and Australia (Robottom, 1982). This apparent Inconsistency has
been attributed In part to "the Inherent difficulties confronting a
curriculum developer charged with the task of translating what are
actually general goals Into manageable Instructional objectives"
(Hungerford, et a1, 1980).
On the other hand, Robottom (1982) proposed that the discrepancy
can be explained by teachers' dominant presuppositions (often
subconscious) about knowledge, teaching and schooling. These
presuppositions Include: (l) knowledge Is discipline-based, objective,
and value-free; (2) teaching Is the authoritative Imparting of factual
Information which Is manifested In a didactic approach to Instruction
wUh in almost exclusive reliance on texts and other second hand data
sources; and (3) the purpose of schooling Is the socialization of
students and the maintenance of the existing social order. Such
generally held presuppositions, argued Robottom, are Mghly consistent
with an emphasis on the knowledge or Informational dimension of
environmental education, but In conflict with a problem-solving and
action orientation.
Curriculum materials, whf^n available, frequently serve as the
major resource for teachers Involved In curriculum planning for
environmental education. Therefore It Is appropriate to examine
whether curriculum materials reflect the International philosophy of
environmental education: ar» Initial condition for estab11sh*;ig a
congruency between theory and practice In schools. However, If an
analysis of the materials should reveal a consistency with the
rhetoric, then It cannot be Immediately assumed that their use will
ensure the same objectives that will be emphasized by schools.
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335
Analysis of U.S. Materials
Four sets of North AmeMcan environmental education materials
were selected from a small number nominated by two environmental
educators who were familiar with materials thct had been prominent In
schools up to 1981. Only curriculum materials that were multi-grade,
with secondary grade levels Included (e.3., R*12t 7<>12), and Inter- or
multi-disciplinary were considered.
A content analysis of these four sets cf materials was carried
out using 28 sub-goal statements developed by Hungerford, Peyton and
Wllke (1980) as the criteria for evaluation* These statements, which
were published subsequent to the development of all the materials
analyzed, had been valldate.1 by the authors against the five Tbilisi
categories of objectives (or more accurately, general goals). Each
set of materials was closely examined for statements of objectives and
a conceptual frameworh that could be compared with the 28 sub<-goals.
Then activities were reviewed to further ascertain the objectives
implied by their content and suggested Instructional strategies. Thus
both stated and Implicit objectives were considered in analyzing the
Intentions of the particular materials.
There was a very close match between curriculum goals related to
the knowledge dimension of environmental education (I.e., the
development of conceptual understandings alout the environment) and
the explicit and Implicit objectives of all four sets of materials.
Two sets. Project Learning Tree (P.L.T.) and •Teaching Activities In
Environmental Education,* were perfectly and highly matched
respectively on objectives concerned with the two categories of
attitudes (and values) and skills for environmental Investigations.
The other two materials embraced only half or less of the curriculum
goals In these two categories. A reasonable degree of congruency was
evident again In P.L.T. and Teaching Activities In relation to
objectives concerned with environmental problem-solving skills, while
both Project I.C.E. and *We Can Help" had a low level of congruency.
however, no set of materials paid much attention to the participation
or action category.
In order to gain some Insights Into the developers* conceptions
of knowledge 
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