Practical knowledge and
occupational competence
Felix Rauner
Institut Technik und Bildung (Institute of Technology and Education), University
of Bremen
Key words
Didactics of vocational
education,
design of vocational
education,
domain specific research in
vocational education,
applied knowledge,
working situation
SUMMARY
The work-oriented change in the didactics of vocational education (VET) identi-
fies ‘significant vocational work situations and the associated work process knowl-
edge as the pivotal factor in the design of vocational curricula and processes.
What is dramatic about this change of perspective is not merely the departure
from academic, discipline-based teaching methods, but also the formulation of
vocational teaching methods for VET practice and VET design thatare predicated
on development theory. As concerns the structurally oriented method of impart-
ing VET, which underwentthis change early on, it is necessary to differentiate the
category of knowledge, above all with respect to practical knowledge and prac-
tical concepts, and also as a basis for domain-specific VET research.
Competence development in vocational
curricula and work situations
Germany's tradition of discipline-based vocational school curricula is
to be replaced by a system which prioritises the work and business process-
es characteristic of an occupation as the focus for curricula structured
around learning fields (KMK, 1996). The processes formulated as objec-
tive requirements here nevertheless lend a subject-related quality to the
curriculum at the same time. This is what is significant about the above-
mentioned change of perspective. The 'learning field' concept is geared
notto a systematic sequence offactual material, butto the idea of a mean-
ingful setof relevant vocational work situations which trainees must learn
to master increasingly well. Vocationally competent behaviour therefore
becomes the subject of learning.
By emphasising learning as a subjective process of construction, re-
cent discussion of teaching methodology and teaching/learning re-
European journal of vocational training - No 40 - 2007/1 - ISSN 1977-0219
Practical knowledge and occupational competence
Felix Rauner
53
search have highlighted more clearly than ever before the fundamental
difference between knowledge-centred instruction and knowledge as
acquired learning (cf. Wittrock, 1990).
The pedagogical trends implicitly pursued by the KMK (German Standing
Conference of Education Ministers) via the learning field concept corre-
spond to theories based on the development of competencies. Vocational
curricula can be systematised not only technically but also as a develop-
mental process from beginner (novice) to reflective mastery (expert) (cf.
Dreyfus; Dreyfus, 1987; Rauner, 1999). F rom a developmenttheory point
of view, the objective side - i.e. the one presenting the learning require-
ments to the subject - still remains. This reflects the idea of someone
being confronted by developmental tasks (Havighurst, 1972; Gruschka,
1985 t 1 )) but not yet having solved them: what a person cannot yet do -
for want of the requisite competence - he learns to do by confronting the
task, which fosters in him the development of competence. On accountof
this developmental/methodological basic model, the concept of develop-
mental tasks lends itself particularly well to the structuring of vocational
learning processes. We ( 2 ) referto 'paradigmatic' work tasks typical of vo-
cational work (Benner, 1997) whenever the work contexts characteristic
and typical of an occupation at the same time promote the development
of occupational competence. The identification of such tasks presup-
poses an analysis of the objective circumstances constituting a given oc-
cupation: the artefacts, tools, methods and organisational forms of vo-
cational work, as well as the (competing) demands made by vocational
work. The most successful way of reconstructing the most important work
tasks for the development of occupational competence is on the basis of
'expert workers' workshops' (cf. Norton, 1997; Bremer; Roben, 2001;
Kleiner, 2005).
The expert workers' accounts of their work, training and projections
are arranged in such a way as to match increasing stages of occupa-
tional competence development and the formation of occupational iden-
tity. Two difficulties which can only be overcome by qualification researchers
with a degree of experience should be pointed out in this connection:
1) The identification of work tasks can rapidly stray to the level of abstract
abilities which reveal very little aboutvocational expertise and the com-
petencies it incorporates.
(') Developmental task theory was first taken up in Germany in the college project on course
evaluation. Blankertz refers in his introductory contribution to the symposium 'Didactics and
identity formation in young people’ (8th DGfE Congress in Regensburg, 1982) to the breadth
ofthis approach: 'what I find interesting about the recourse made to Rousseau and Spranger
is simply the high value being attached by a subject theory to teaching methods that are ap-
propriate to systematic education ata young age, [...] Indeed, syllabuses, textbooks, curric-
ular materials and classroom teachers at secondary II level often refer by way of illustration
to individual disciplines and industrial technologies, without systematically taking into ac-
count the developmental tasks faced by pupils (Blankertz, 1983, p. 141).
( 2 ) 'We’ means a fairly large group of academics who have addressed ourselves in the past
few years to the concepts and theories of task orientation in qualification and curriculum
research (cf. ITB, 2002).
European journal of vocational training
54 No 40 - 2007/1
2) Work tasks which operate with the same artefacts and tools, and more-
over superficially appear very similar, often prove to be extremely di-
verse in terms of the requisite occupational competence (cf. Stratmann,
1975).
Both of these difficulties can be overcome by means of vocationally
oriented studies directed at analysing vocational work processes and
tasks in situ (Lave; Wenger, 1991, p. 33; Roben, 2005). Interpreting and
re-evaluating industrial work processes and tasks therefore means taking
into account the interpretation model emerging in the context of commu-
nities of practice. Theo Wehner has coined the term local interpretation
models' here. These are on the one hand imbued with social significance,
but on the other hand they develop only in places where communities of
practice operate (Wehner et a I., 1996, p. 79). More specifically, what
this means for qualification research is that the researcher must decode
the work processes in situ as an interplay of work artefacts, tools and meth-
ods, and must decode the work organisation in its functionality, in its gen-
esis and structurability as a technological and social process.
Figure! Vocational competence development 'from beginner to expert'
Practical knowledge and occupational competence
Felix Rauner
Bremer (2001) refers to the consequences of this fora work-oriented
didactics of vocational education. Fora trainee atthe beginning of his vo-
cational education, the new tasks and situations mark the start of a devel-
opmentof occupational identity and technical competence. This develop-
mental process necessitates three elements: (1) vocational learning, (2)
vocational work and (3) cooperation at work.
Developmental tasks have two didactic functions. First, they are used
as an evaluation instrument to demonstrate the formation of occupation-
al competence and identity at the (as yet unidentified) critical thresholds
of occupational competence development (Bremer; H aasler, 2004). Second,
developmental tasks are atthe same time a didactic tool for establishing
and designing vocational curricula as well as learning and working tasks
for structurally oriented VET (vocational education and training) (cf. Flowe
etal., 2001).
The five stages of competence development identified by Flubert L.
Dreyfus and Stuart E . Dreyfus, and the four corresponding developmen-
tal learning areas (Figure 1), have a hypothetical function for the identifi-
cation of thresholds and stages in the development of occupational
competence and identity; they also have a didactic function in the devel-
opment of work-related and structurally oriented vocational courses (Rauner,
2002 ).
Expertise research also attaches crucial importance to developmen-
tal tasks, or their functional equivalents, for competence development.
Regarding the development of occupational competence in nurses, for
instance, Patricia Benner notes the paradigmatic significance of work sit-
uations in the step-by-step achievement of occupational competence in ac-
cordance with Dreyfus and Dreyfus' developmental model. Benner relates
these developmental tasks to 'paradigmatic work situations' in the sense
of cases which promote the competence of nursing staff (Benner, 1997).
Benner and G ruschka favour a change in the empirical access to
real learning paths. Blankertz regards this change as dramatic not only
owing to the departure from the discipline-based structuring of vocation-
al curricula, but also in that competence development is governed by struc-
tures of meaning which demand a change of perspective in the trainee:
'he must anticipate his specific occupational role and identify with it - oth-
erwise no competence development would be feasible' (Blankertz,
1983, p. 139).
Along with the subjectof learning, i.e. the person whose skills are be-
ing developed from the level of deficient to competent, the analytical fo-
cus is also directed at learning processes beyond the pedagogical and or-
ganisational continuum of systematic instruction. The subject learns in sit-
uations whose quality becomes crucial to the learning outcomes. In a much
more general pedagogical context, Lave and Wenger pointoutthatlearn-
ing as a path from inability to ability is accomplished as a process of inte-
gration into the community of practice of those who already demonstrate
expertise (Lave; Wenger, 1991).
56
European journal of vocational training
No 40 - 2007/1
It has taken almost two decades in Germany to translate into didac-
tic concepts the impetus generated by the attempt to explain competence
development in VET in terms of development theory (cf. Bremer; J agla,
2000; Rauner, 2004).
Dimensions of practical knowledge
In the context of the change in VET didactics concerning work and
work processes, work process knowledge is regarded as a central cate-
gory of knowledge: it is knowledge which arises from reflective work ex-
perience and is incorporated in practical work. Work process knowledge
is a form of knowledge that guides practical work and, as contextualised
knowledge, goes far beyond non-contextual theoretical knowledge (cf.
Erautetal., 1998).
Picking up on the discussion about work process knowledge initiated
by Wilfried Kruse (Kruse, 1986), this key category has been identified and
explored in numerous research projects as a form of knowledge fundamen-
tal to vocational learning (cf. Boreham etal., 2002; Fischer; Rauner, 2002).
Work process knowledge can be characterised in an initial approxima-
tion as a combination of practical and theoretical knowledge (Figure 2).
The European 'Work Process Knowledge' research network bases its
investigations into the subject on a working definition whereby work process
knowledge is 'knowledge which
• is directly necessary in the work process (as opposed for example to
discipline-based knowledge;
Figure 2: Work process knowledge as a combination of practical and
theoretical knowledge and of subjective and objective
knowledge
Practical knowledge Theoretical knowledge
Contextualised
and implicit (tacit)
Contextualised,
guiding action
and explicit
Context-free,
guiding action,
academic,
justifying action
Work process knowledge
subjective
- knowledge -
objective
Practical knowledge and occupational competence
Felix Rauner
• is acquired in the work process itself, e.g. through experiential learn-
ing, but does not exclude the application of theoretical knowledge;
• encompasses a complete work process, in the sense of designing,
planning, performing and assessing one's own work in the context of
workplace processes' (Fischer, 2000, p. 36).
The category of practical knowledge will now be examined in more de-
tail. This is especially crucial for VET, since what is directly at issue here
is the relationship between work experience, knowledge and ability. We
should refer at this juncture to the current discussion about the founding
of a theory of social practice, as put forward for example by Andreas
Reckwitz from a sociological perspective. From the point of view of VET
research and pedagogy, it is interesting to note Reckwitz's reference to
the implicit logic of practice, as expressed for instance in the artefacts of
the working world and in the knowledge, interests and functions they rep-
resent.
According to Reckwitz's theory of practice, practical knowledge com-
prises:
1. 'knowledge in the sense of interpretive understanding, i.e. a routine
assignment of meaning to objects, persons etc.;
2. methodical knowledge of 'script'-based procedures, or how to perform
a series of actions competently;
3. motivational/emotional knowledge: an implicit sense of what one ac-
tually wants, what is at stake and what would not be feasible' (Reckwitz,
2003, p. 292).
This definition omits a dimension of practical knowledge which is rel-
evant to VET research and pedagogy. The materiality of practice, as iden-
tified by Reckwitz, for example reduces technical artefacts to the dimen-
sion of the technical as a social process, in the theory of practice just as
in established technical-sociological research. Curriculum theory requires
a broader concept of the technical, encompassing the technical dimen-
sion of knowledge itself.
In examining paradigmatic work situations and tasks for nurses, Patricia
Benner attaches constitutive importance to practical knowledge for occu-
pational competence and takes up the cognitive theory positions substan-
tiated by Schon in his 'epistemology of practice' (Schon, 1983). The six
dimensions of practical knowledge identified by Benner (Benner, 1997)
have gained currency in qualification and curriculum research. In qualifi-
cation research, Bernd H aasler inter alia bases himself on this category-
based framework for practical knowledge and confirms its usability in an
empirical analysis of the extentto which manual work can be objectivised
(H aasler, 2004).
(1) Sensitivity to fine qualitative differences (sensitivity)
A distinctive feature of practical vocational work is that, with increas-
ing occupational experience, trained professionals develop ever greater
sensitivity to fine and extremely fine situative differences in the percep-
European journal of vocational training
58 No 40 - 2007/1
tion and mastery of work situations. For example, a competent tool-
maker, when removing the protruding parts of steel surfaces that have
to be particularly flat, must possess exceptional technical sensitivity go-
ing beyond both the theoretical description of the requisite knowledge and
expertise and the analysis of flat surface measurements and the machin-
ing algorithm to be derived therefrom. Experienced tool-makers are able,
without lengthy reflection, to select correctly from thousands of tiny points
on the steel surface they are shaving down which ones need to be re-
moved, and can do so without being able to articulate the algorithm or
rules they apply (Gerds, 2002).
(2) Shared understanding (contextuality)
Another aspect of practical vocational work is that, with increasing work
experience beginning at the VET stage, members of occupational com-
munities of practice possess an increasing body of similar and shared ex-
periences. Their vocational work tasks are largely identical or similar. The
language, stress, social norms and embedding of the specific vocational
work in the process of social work constitute occupational traditions which
lead to the emergence of comparable patterns of behaviour and appraisals.
This ultimately results in an intuitive understanding that goes beyond ver-
bal communication, enabling those concerned to work side by side even
in very complex work situations without the need for many words (cf.
Wehner et al., 1996).
(3) Assumptions, expectations and attitudes (situativity)
Practical knowledge comprises assumptions and expectations about
typical work situations and work procedures. The interplay of experiential
assumptions, attitudes and expectations, which leads to perceptual aware-
ness (Holzkamp, 1985), on the one hand, and situative behaviour on the
other constitutes an extremely fine differentiation of plans for action, go-
ing far beyond theory-driven activity. The narration and description of typ-
ical work situations initiated in technical discussions serves two purpos-
es here: a contextualised account of work activity as an expression of sit-
uative assumptions, expectations and attitudes, and the decoding of their
genesis. Furthermore, this contextualised access to practical knowledge
ultimately makes it possible to differentiate more clearly between explicit
and implicit work process knowledge.
(4) Paradigmatic work tasks (paradigmaticity)
Benner and Wrubel (1982) introduced the term 'paradigmatic cases'
for the purposes of their vocationally oriented qualification research in the
field of the nursing professions. Paradigmatic work tasks only include ones
which are subjectively experienced as especially challenging and objec-
tively afford new or additional work experience, but which are at the same
time mastered on the basis of previous experience and previous knowl-
edge in such a way that prior knowledge makes it possible to create prom-
Practical knowledge and occupational competence
Felix Rauner
59
ising plans for action. Paradigmatic developmental tasks have an objec-
tive side, inasmuch as vocationally oriented qualification research has
shown which work tasks are typical of each developmental stage in the
occupational progression from beginner to reflective mastery (expert) and
whose accomplishment demands or promotes superior and more differ-
entiated knowledge. One pre-requisite for curriculum developmentfound-
ed on development theory is the identification and analysis of vocational
work tasks which have the quality of paradigmatic or developmental tasks.
(5) Communication in the community of practice (communicativity)
Experts develop highly economic forms of comprehension in a broad
spectrum of verbal and non-verbal communication within their communi-
ty of practice. The subjective significance of information communicated
within a community of practice is largely coherent. The degree of techni-
cal understanding lies well above that of communication outside the en-
terprise. In vocational work processes it is necessary on the one hand to
be extremely precise when using defined concepts, codes, norms and
rules, which allow no - or virtually no - scope for subjective interpretation.
On the other hand, practical knowledge and occupational competence are
reflected in contextualised language and communication whose full sig-
nificance is apparent only to members of the community of practice. Access
to the practical knowledge of a community of practice presupposes that
one understands its language (Becker, 2005).
(6) Unpredictable tasks and meta-competence (perspectivity)
Practical vocational activity takes place in work situations and contexts
whose predictability varies from one occupation to another. New individ-
ual and collective practical knowledge arises constantly in such work sit-
uations, even though it is not possible to solve the fundamental problem
of work situations that are in principle unpredictable. Related to this is a
specific form of work-related stress, resulting from what can systematical-
ly be described as a knowledge gap (Drescher, 1996, p. 284). Thus work
process knowledge is always incomplete knowledge, which is experienced
subjectively in the case of unpredictable work tasks and constantly has to
be bridged and completed in a given situation. In highly complex networked
automated systems there is an additional unknown factor related to con-
ditions and causes of faults. Faults of uncertain origin and temporary break-
downs make complex networked work systems even less transparent.
Mastery of unpredictable work tasks - fundamentally incomplete knowl-
edge (knowledge gap) in relation to non-transparent, non-deterministic
work situations - is characteristic of practical work process knowledge.
Wherever this is a feature of vocational work, meta-competence can be
created, namely the ability to cope with the knowledge gap when solving
unpredictable tasks and problems in vocational work.
The differentiation of the practical knowledge category as a dimension
of the work process facilitates research into domain-specific knowledge,
European journal of vocational training
60 No 40 - 2007/1
which sheds more light on work process knowledge and in turn also prom-
ises to reveal more about the imparting of work process knowledge in or
for vocational work processes. However, it provides only a partial answer
to the overriding question of whether the loss of actuality of work process
knowledge caused by accelerating change in the working world funda-
mentally devalues this knowledge as a point of reference for the develop-
ment of occupational competence. A widely held popular thesis maintains
thattechnical competence is devalued by the loss of actuality ofvocation-
al knowledge. Thus the technical dimension is in a sense shifted to a meta-
level, where all that matters is to have appropriate access to technical
knowledge documented in comfortable media, databases and knowledge
management systems. Accessing the 'knowledge' required for specific
work tasks - knowledge management- would be sufficient. Technical com-
petence would vanish as a form of domain-specific method compe-
tence. Yetthis thesis has been rejected by comprehensive studies on the
transformation of skilled work and on skill requirements, above all in the
field of diagnostic work. Some pertinent vocationally oriented studies, and
expertise research too, have confirmed the opposite thesis, namely that
the vocational work process knowledge underpinning technical occupa-
tional competence has in fact gained in significance (cf. Drescher, 1996;
Becker, 2003; Rauner; Spottl, 2002; Gerstenmaier, 2004).
VET practice, expertise research and vocationally oriented qualifica-
tion research in the field of personal services and industrial work have
unanimously concluded that domain-specific (technical) competence is
the cornerstone of occupational competence (3). (To the extent that it is
possible to put empirical curriculum research back on a firmer footing
thanks to domain-specific qualification research, the diffuse formula of key
qualifications takes a back seat.) Expertise and qualification research at
the same time supports the concept of vocational learning in the context
of meaningful work situations and hence the key programmatic idea of a
curriculum structured around learning fields. The orientation of vocation-
al learning according to (occupational) work and business processes -
from a structurally oriented perspective - implies that work activity has a
rationality of its own beyond the one-dimensional scientific rationality typ-
ical of the discipline-based curriculum. This finding has unleashed anoth-
er controversial discussion in VET pedagogy about the connection be-
tween discipline-based and casuistic learning (cf. Fischer; Roben, 2004).
A widespread pedagogical belief in the specialised nature of vocation-
al knowledge ties in with the German Educational Council's requirement
thatall training must be academically oriented, and assumes that special-
ist academic knowledge is the highest form of systematic knowledge, in
which social knowledge is stored. T ade T ramm for instance does not in-
( 3 ) Cf. on this pointthe proceedings of the HGTB and GTW conferences (Pahl; Rauner; Spottl,
2000; Eicker; Petersen, 2001; Petersen; Rauner; Stuber, 2001), Gerstenmaier, 2003 from
an expertise research perspective, and Gardner in his substantiation of multiple intelligen-
ce theory (2002).
Practical knowledge and occupational competence
Felix Rauner
61
terpretthe KMK's reference to work and business process orientation in
its hand-out on the development of learning fields (KMK, 1996) as a pro-
grammatic reference to an extended notion of competence, but links it
to the discussion about inductive forms of learning, which in VET are ul-
timately always directed at 'opening up access to systematic knowledge
and conceptual awareness, and hence moving from the pragmatic con-
text to economic insights [in the field of business and administration, F.
R .] and interpretations' (T ramm, 2002, p. 58).
This assumption, widespread in VET pedagogy, thatdiscipline-based
knowledge represents a kind of shadow occupational activity that- in pro-
cedural terms - guides occupational expertise, derives from a funda-
mental mistaking of categories, as is demonstrated inter alia by Neuweg
(2000) and Fischer (2002) (cf. on this pointalso Heritage, 1984, p. 298 ff).
Our interim conclusion would therefore be thatthe development of
occupational competence occurs in a process of reflective practical ex-
perience. According to Schon, the development of occupational compe-
tence is based on an extension of the repertoire of individual cases with
which the learner is confronted in the developmental process. Schon, how-
ever, underestimates here the contribution made by school-centred VET,
if it is successful in turning work process knowledge and its communica-
tion in activity-oriented forms of learning into the cornerstone of curriculum
development and course design. Thatthen means systematising teaching
and learning content along developmental lines, since occupational com-
petence can only be developed in thatway - and notalong discipline lines.
The notions of practical knowledge and 'reflection on and in action'
correspond to Klaus Holzkamp's notion of practical concepts (Holzkamp,
1985, p. 226 ff.). He maintains thatthe concepts which people use sub-
jectively are basically practical, in that their elements, scope and fields of
meaning (i.e. the sum of their elements of meaning and their context) are
affected by the individual developmental processes. Scientifically defined
concepts, however, represent only a fraction of the elements of meaning
of practical concepts and hence determine (occupational) competence to
only a very limited extent.
Members of different communities of practice have their own domain-
specific practical concepts, in which the domain-specific connotations of
objects form specific semantic fields (Wehner; Dick, 2001). The semantic
fields of practical concepts become blurred at the edges, change their
scope with every new experience, are in themselves quite contradictory,
and their elements of meaning are often associated with other practical
concepts. The significance of individual elements of meaning can only be
clarified (in a domain-specific fashion) by taking into accountthe skill pro-
file of an occupation. Subjective interpretations of elements of meaning
are exposed to a continual process of change, embedded in the process-
es of competence development. It is therefore necessary to investigate in
more detail whether and how the semantic fields for the same concept
overlap in different occupations, how the elements of meaning correspond
European journal of vocational training
62 No 40 - 2007/1
to one another and in what way they are linked to other semantic fields.
P ractical concepts not only regulate ongoing work activity at a given time;
they also underpin communication within and between communities of
practice by symbolically representing contextualised circumstances. These
processes of forming practical concepts that guide action and facilitate
communication in communities of practice take place above all as situ-
ated learning. It is the task of technical and vocational didactic research
to investigate beginners' prior understanding - or their subjective se-
mantic fields for technical concepts - and experts' occupational seman-
tic fields for key technical concepts. Only then will it be possible to devise
teaching and learning strategies which enable the semantic fields and
structures of everyday concepts and theories gradually to be transformed
into occupational semantic fields.
Conclusions
The traditional comparison made in pedagogical discussion between
discipline-based and casuistic learning is misleading. The didactic con-
cept of activity-led acquisition of discipline-based knowledge is predicat-
ed on a scientistic misconception of the relationship between knowledge
and competence. The importance of specialised technical curriculum con-
tent for the process of developing occupational competence is greatly
overestimated. In the area of industrial and technical VET, some elements
of the work-related semantic fields are denoted with definitional knowl-
edge, even if it is acquired through inductive teaching and learning meth-
ods. By contrast, the domain-specific practical concepts (Holzkamp, 1985,
p. 266 ff.) acquired in the process of occupational competence develop-
ment and the related subjective theories, as well as the understanding
of the work process context, serve to guide action. This process cannot
be dissociated from that of integrating into the community of practice.
Empirical VET research must therefore investigate in a domain-
specific fashion, for each profession or occupation, what prior understand-
ing and what experiences impacton the relevant vocational concepts and
subjective theories of learners. Moving on from there, the steps and stages
in the developmental communication of work process knowledge must be
explored didactically. To this extent, the developmental systematisation
of working and learning situations, e.g. in the form of case-work and proj-
ects, is an appropriate form of systematic VET where there is an oppor-
tunity to acquire extensive, meaningful and action-guiding concepts and
theories, as well as behavioural strategies, embedded in and supported
by the process of vocational identity-building. The topicality of this discus-
sion arises out of the European project on the introduction of modular cer-
tification systems for vocational education as well as the opposite trend
internationally towards the re-establishment of dual training models (e.g.
in Malaysia, Oman, Italy, Holland and Scotland).
Practical knowledge and occupational competence
Felix Rauner
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