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MANUAL
4
OF
SCIENCE
CONTAINING
^shingt<
ANSWERS TO THE PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
AND PROBLEMS IN THE AUTHOR’S
SCIENTIFIC TEXT-BOOKS
BY
J. DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D., P. G. S.
AUTHOR OF THE FOURTEEN-WEEKS SERIES IN NATURAL SCIENCE
REVISED EDITION
TO ACCOMPANY THE POPULAR PHYSICS, POPULAR CHEMISTRY, HYGIENIC
PHYSIOLOGY, AND NEW DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY
COPYRIGHT, 1888
A. S. DARN ES & COMPANY
NEW YORK AND CHICAGO
ir«.adf»rrfc»<l from the Lltor**f
of Congress under Sec. 69,
OepyHtfbt Act of Mch. 4,1 90&J
A POPULAR SERIES
IN
NATURAL SCIENCE
BY
J. Dorman Steele, FTi.D., K.G.S.,
A utkor of the Fourteen IVeeks Series in Natural Science , etc., etc.
New Popular Chemistry. New Descriptive Astronomy.
New Popular Physics. New Hygienic Physiology.
New Popular Zoology. Popular Geology.
An Introduction to Botany.
The Publishers can supply (to Teachers only) a Manual containing Answers
to the Questions and Problems in Steele’s entire Series.
BARNES’ HISTORICAL SERIES,
ON THE PLAN OF
STEELE’S FOURTEEN-WEEKS IN THE SCIENCES.
A Brief History of the United States.
A Brief History of France.
A Brief History of Ancient Peoples.
A Brief History of Mediaeval and Modern Peoples.
A Brief General History.
A Brief History of Greece.
A Brief History of Rome.
A Popular History of the United States.
PREFACE.
Since the publication of the former edition of this Manual,
Steele’s Physics and Chemistry have been thoroughly revised,
and the Hygienic Physiology has been published. The present
issue has been prepared to accompany these later editions, and
includes complete reference to all the problems and practical
questions contained in Steele’s Popular Physics, Popular Chemis¬
try? Hygienic Physiology, and Hew Descriptive Astronomy.
Great pains have been taken to revise and compare the prob¬
lems, which are fully, and, it is thought, accurately solved.
The practical questions, as in the former edition of the Manual,
are often not answered in full, yet sufficiently so to furnish a
key to the more perfect reply. The use of the text-books is
presupposed, and the statements merely supplement, or apply
the theories therein contained and explained. Upon many points
there may be, and often is, a difference of opinion. On these
mooted questions only that view which appeared to the author
to have preponderance of argument has been advanced, leaving
the subject open for the discussion of other theories.
The former- edition of the Manual can still be obtained by
those teachers who continue to use the earlier editions of the
Sciences, although, with a few exceptions, the problems and
questions therein answered are incorporated with those which
have been added in the present issue.
December, 1888 .
ANSWERS
TO THE
PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
IN THE
POPULAR PHYSICS.
36— 1. A rifle-ball thrown against a board standing
on its end will knock it doivn ; the same bullet fired at the
board will pass through it without disturbing its position .
Why is this ?
The ball which is thrown has time to impart its motion to
the board; the one fired has not.
2, Why can a boy skate safely over a piece of thin ice 9
when 9 if he should pause 9 it would break under him di¬
rectly ?
In the former case there is time for the weight of his body
to be communicated to the ice; in the latter, there is not.
3 . Why can a cannon-ball be fired through a door
standing ajar 9 without moving it on its hinges ?
Because the cannon-ball is moving so quickly that its mo¬
tion is not imparted perceptibly to the door.
4L. Why can we drive on the head of a hammer by sim¬
ply striking the end of the handle ?
This can only be done by a quick, sharp blow, which will
drive the wooden handle through the socket before the motion
has time to overcome the inertia of the iron head. A slow,
steady blow will be imparted to the head, and so fail of the
desired effect.
2
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
3, Suppose you were on a train of cars moving at the
rate of 30 miles per hour; with what force would you be
thrown forward if the train tvere stopped instantly ?
With the same velocity which the train had, or 44 feet per
second. Your momentum would he your mass multiplied by
this velocity.
6, In what line does a stone fall from the mast-head of
a vessel in motion ?
In a slightly curved line, produced by the two forces—grav¬
ity and the forward motion of the vessel.
«r ' .j , . .... „ ^ , *
7. If a ball be dropped from a high tower it will strike
the earth a little east of a vertical line. Why is this ?
In the daily revolution of the earth on its axis, from west
to east, the top of the tower moves faster than the bottom, be¬
cause it passes through a larger circle. When, therefore, the
ball falls, it retains that swifter easterly motion, and so strikes
very slightly east of the vertical.
S, It is stated that a suit was once brought by the driver
of a light wagon against the owner of a coach for damages
caused by a collision. The complaint was that the latter
was driving so fast, that when the two carriages struck the
driver of the former was thrown forward over the dash¬
board, Shoiv how his own testimony proved him to have
been at fault.
When the light wagon was suddenly stopped, its driver went
on with the same speed at which the wagon was moving. That
this threw him forward over the dash-board, proves his speed
to have been unusual.
9, Suppose a train moving at the rate of 30 miles per
hour ; on the rear platform is a spring-gun aimed parallel
with the track, and in a direction precisely opposite to the
motion of the car. Let a ball be discharged with the exact
speed of the train, where would it fall ?
In a vertical line to the track. The two equal, opposite mo¬
tions would exactly destroy each other.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
3
10, Suppose a steamer in rapid motion and on its deck
a man jumping. Can he jump farther by leaping the
way the boat is moving or in the opposite direction?
It will make no difference as long as he jumps on the deck.
Should he jump off the boat, then the effect would be different.
11, Could a party play ball on the deck of an ocean
steam-ship when moving along at the rate of 20 miles
per hour, without making allowance for the motion of
the ship ?
They could. The ball would have the motion of the ship,
and would move with it in whatever direction they might
throw it.
37-12, Since “action is equal to reaction,” why is it not
so dangerous to receive the “kick” of a gun as the force
of the bullet ?
The kinetic energy varies as the square of the velocity ; and
the velocity with which the gun moves backward is as much
less than that with which the bullet moves forward, as the gun
is heavier than the bullet. For this reason a heavy gun will
kick much less than a light one.
13, If you ivere to jump from a carriage in rapid
motion, would you leap directly toward the spot on which
you tvished to alight?
No ; because as one jumps from the carriage he has its for¬
ward motion, and will go just as far ahead, while leaping, as
he would if he had remained in the carriage. He should, there¬
fore, aim a little back of the desired alighting-place.
11. If you wished to shoot a bird in swift flight, would
you aim directly at it?
No. The bird will fly forward while the bullet is going to
it. One should, therefore, aim a little in advance.
15, At what parts of the earth is the centrifugal force
the least?
The poles. The distance from axis to surface is there re¬
duced to zero.
4
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
16. What causes the mad to fly from the wheels of a
carriage in rapid motion ?
The centrifugal force (the momentum of the mud).
17. What proof have we that the earth was once a soft
mass ?
It is flattened at the poles. This effect is produced upon a
ball of soft clay by simply revolving it on a wire axis.
18. On a curve in a railroad, why is one track always
higher than the other ?
The outer track is raised in order that centrifugal force and
gravity, acting together, may combine to keep the average
pressure perpendicular to the track.
19. What is the principle of the sling ?
The sling is whirled until a strong centrifugal force is gen¬
erated ; the string, the centripetal force, is then released, when
the stone flies off at a tangent.
20. The mouth of the Mississippi River is about 2\ miles
farther from the center of the earth than its source . What
causes its water to thus “ run up hill 99 ?
The centrifugal force produced by the rotation of the earth
on its axis tends to drive the water from the poles toward the
equator. Were the earth to stand still in its daily rotation, the
G-ulf of Mexico would empty its waters back through the Mis¬
sissippi to the northern regions.
21. Is it action or reaction that breaks an egg when 1
strike it against the table ?
The reaction of the table.
22. Was the man philosophical who said “ it was not
the falling so far but the stopping so quick that hurt
him 99 ?
He was.
23. If one person runs against another, tvhich receives
the greater blow ?
Action is equal to reaction ; hence the momentum given up
by the one is equal to that received by the other.
5
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.'
24. Would it vary the effect if the two persons were
running in opposite directions ?
The blow would then be the sum of both their momenta.
If they were running in the same direction ?
The blow would be equal to the difference of their momenta.
25. Why can you not fire a rifle-ball around a hill?
Because a single force always produces motion in a straight
line.
26. Why does a heavy gun “kick” less than a light
one ?
See problem 12.
27. A man on the deck of a large steamer draws a
small boat toward him. Can you express the ratio of the
ship 9 s motion to that of the boat ?
The ship moves as much less distance than the boat, as the
boat’s mass is less than that of the ship.
28. Suppose a string, fastened with a nail at one end,
will just support a weight of 25 lbs. at the other. Unfasten
it, and let two persons pull upon it in opposite directions.
How much can each pull without breaking it ?
25 lbs. The second person, in the latter case, can pull as
much as the nail did in the former. The tension in the string
is 25 lbs., and the action of the one person is just balanced by
the reaction of the other.
29. Can a man standing on a platform-scale make
himself lighter by lifting up on himself?
He can not; because action and reaction are equal and op¬
posite.
30. Why can not a man lift himself by pulling up
on his boot-straps ?
See last problem.
31. With what momentum would a, steam-boat weigh¬
ing 1,000 tons, and moving with a velocity of 10 feet per
second, strike against a sunken rock ?
6
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
1,000 tons = 2,000,000 lbs. 2,000,000 x 10 = 20,000,000 units
of momentum.
32, With what momentum would a train of cars weigh -
tng 100 tons, and running 10 miles per hour, strike against
an obstacle?
The velocity per second is 14f feet. 100 tons = 200,000 lbs.
The momentum is 200,000 x 14§ = 2,933,333^ units of momen¬
tum.
33, What would be the comparative kinetic energy of
two hammers, one driven with a velocity of 20 feet per
second, and the other 10 feet ?
20 2 = 400. 10 2 = 100. 400 : 100 :: 4 : 1.
Hence the kinetic energy of the first, or its ability to ac¬
complish work, will be four times that of the second. This
principle is of great importance in all cases where percussion is
concerned. The highest velocity attainable is to be sought.
34, If a 100 horse-power engine can propel a steamer
5 miles per hour, ivill one of 200 horse-power double its
speed ?
By no means. Resistance is proportional to v 2 . (See Popu¬
lar Physics , p. 65.) To double the velocity would require over
400 horse-power.
35, Why are ships becalmed at sea sometimes floated
by strong currents into dangerous localities without the
knowledge of the crew ?
As there are no fixed objects with which to compare their
motion, the officers are not sensible of any movement, and so
are drifted far out of their course.
38 30, A man in a wagon holds a 50-lb, weight in his
hand. Suddenly the wagon falls over a precipice. Will
he, while dropping, bear the strain of the weight ?
No., While on solid ground, his hand resisted the tendency,
of the weight to fall toward the earth’s center of gravity; but
all are now descending freely under the influence of gravity,
and he no longer feels the pressure.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
7
37 • Why are we not sensible of the rapid motion of the
earth ?
Because all the objects around us are moving in the same
direction with the earth, and there is nothing at hand with
which to compare.
38. A feather is dropped from a balloon which is im¬
mersed in and swept along by a swift current of air. Will
the feather be blown away, or will it appear to a person in
the balloon to drop directly down ?
It will seem to drop directly downward, as if in a dead
calm. Its fall is vertical, however, only as regards the balloon,
and not as regards the earth.
(See Stewart’s Physics, p. 18.)
*
39. Suppose a bomb-shell, flying through the air at the
rate of 500 feet per second, explodes into two parts of equal
tv eight, driving one half forward in the same direction as
before, but with double its former velocity. What would
become of the other half?
One half will go forward with a double velocity (= 1,000 feet
per sec.), and the other half will be checked and will fall directly
to the ground.
(See Stewart’s Physics , p. 37.)
40. Which wotild have the greater penetrating power,
a small cannon-ball with a high velocity, or a large one
with a low velocity ?
The former would penetrate, while the latter would have
the greater momentum.
41. There is a story told of a man who erected a huge
pair of bellows in the stern of his pleasure-boat, that he
m ight always have a fair wind. On trial, the plan failed.
In which direction should he have turned the bellows ?
In the manner adopted at first, of turning the nozzle toward
the sails, the action of the wind against the sails and the reac¬
tion of the bellows against the boat just balanced each other.
If .the man had turned the nozzle backward, he could have saved
the reaction of the bellows to move the boat. This would, how¬
ever, have been a costly and bungling mode of navigation.
8
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
42. If a man and a boy were riding in a wagon, and,
on coming to the foot of a hill, the man should take up the
boy in his arms, would that help the horse ?
No change would be produced in the weight of the entire
establishment drawn by the horse, as no readjustment of the
load would modify the attraction of gravity which produces the
weight. Also, action = reaction ; so the man would press down
on the wagon an amount equal to the weight of the boy.
43. If tee whirl a pail of water swiftly around on its
own axis, why will the water tend to leave the center of
the pail ?
The centrifugal force is compounded with the force of grav¬
ity, and at each point of the surface the water level is at right
angles to their resultant. The centrifugal force increases with
distance from the axis, hence the water surface becomes con¬
cave.
44. Why will the foam collect at the hollotv in the cen¬
ter?
The foam, being lighter than the water, has less momen¬
tum, in proportion to its volume, and is forced back by the
heavier particles.
45. If two cannon-balls, one weighing 8 lbs. and the
other 2 lbs., be fired with the same velocity, which will go
the farther ?
The former has much less surface in proportion to its weight.
It will therefore go much farther against the resistance of the
air.
46. Hesolve the force of the wind which turns a com¬
mon windmill, and show how one part acts to push the
ivheel against its support, and one to turn it around.
This case is exactly like that of the action of the wind
against the sail of a ship, as shown in the text on p. 29.
47. When an animal is jumping or falling, can any
exertion made in mid-air change the motion of its center
of gravity ?
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
9
The center of gravity falls steadily 16.08 feet, whatever
other force may act on the body.
(See Second Law of Motion.)
48. If one is riding rapidly, in which direction will he
he thrown when the horse is suddenly stopped ?
In the same direction in which he is going. He has the
motion of the carriage, and his momentum carries him for¬
ward.
49, When standing in a boat, why, as it starts, are we
thrown backward ?
Because our bodies tend to remain stationary, while the
boat carries our feet forward.
50, When carrying a cup of tea, if ive move or stop
quickly, why is the liquid liable to spill ?
The momentum of the tea tends to keep it still or in mo¬
tion, as the case may be. If we move the cup quickly, the
motion is not imparted to the liquid soon enough to overcome
this momentum. When, therefore, we start, the tea spills out
backward; or, when we stop, it spills out forward. We under¬
stand this if we can tell why a cup of tea is more liable to
spill than one of sugar.
51, Why, when closely pursued, can we escape by dodg¬
ing?
We turn sharply. Our pursuer, ignorant of our design, can
not overcome his momentum so as to turn as quickly, and
hence is carried past.
52, Why is a carriage or sleigh, when sharply turning
a corner, liable to tip over ?
Because its momentum tends to carry it directly forward.
53, Why, if yon place a card on your finger, and on top
of it a cent, can you snap the card from under the cent
without knocking the latter off your finger ?
Because the friction between the card and the cent is so
slight that, by a quick snap, you can give motion to the former
without affecting the latter enough to make it fall off.
10
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
54. Why is a “ running jump 99 longer than a “stand¬
ing jump 99 ?
This is an example under the first law of motion. The mo¬
mentum of the person when running (mxv) is added to the
force with which he finally springs from the ground for the
jump.
,7,7. Why, after the sails of a vessel are furled, does it
still continue to move ? and why, after the sails are spread,
does it require some time to get it tinder full headway?
This illustrates the tendency of matter to continue in its
present state, whether of rest or of motion. For the former
part of the question, apply the first law of motion, and for the
latter, the second paragraph on p. 21 of the Physics. If, on
starting with a heavy load, the horses leap suddenly forward,
they will break the harness; but, by a steady, constantly-in¬
creased draught, they will communicate motion to the mass.
56. Why can a tallow candle he fired through a hoard ?
Because of its high velocity. Motion can not be communi¬
cated at once to the entire mass of the board, hence this yields
at the place where pressure is suddenly applied.
COHESION.
48— 4. Why can we not weld apiece of copper to one of
iron ?
Cohesion acts most readily between molecules of the same
kind.
2. Why is a har of iron stronger than one of wood?
All we can say is that there is more cohesion between its
molecules. The wood, moreover, is perforated with minute hol¬
low tubes, so that its molecules can not be so compactly massed
together as those of the iron.
3, Why may a piece of iron, when perfectly welded, he
stronger than before it was broken ?
By the hammering, more particles are brought within the
range of cohesion.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
11
4. Why do drops of different liquids vary in size ?
Because they vary in cohesive force.
5. Why, when you drop medicine, will the last few
drops contained in the bottle be of a larger size than the
others ?
The pressure of the liquid in the bottle is less, and there¬
fore they form more slowly.
(i. Why are drops larger if you drop them slowly ?
There is more time for the adhesive force of the bottle to
act on the liquid, and so a larger drop can be gathered.
7. Why, if you melt scraps of zinc, will they form a
solid mass when cooled ?
The heat overcomes, in part, the attraction of cohesion, so
that the particles flow freely on each other. They now all
come within the range of cohesion, so that when the metal
cools they are held by that force in a solid mass.
8. In ivhat liquids is the force of cohesion greatest?
Mercury, molasses, etc.
.9. Name some solids that will volatilize without melt¬
ing .
Arsenic, camphor.
10. Why can glass be welded ?
Because, like iron, it becomes viscous before melting.
11. Name some substances that can not be welded. Why
not ?
Wood can not be welded, nor can lead or bismuth. They
can not be made to assume the viscous condition.
12. What liquids tvould you select for showing surface
tension ?
Solution of soap in water is the most convenient. The dif¬
ference in tension between films of different kinds of liquid is
well shown by carefully dropping oil of coriander or oil of cin¬
namon, or minute fragments of clean camphor on the surface
of perfectly clean water.
12
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
ADHESION.
54— 1 . Why does cloth shrink when wet ?
By adhesion the water is drawn into the pores of the cloth.
The fibers are thus expanded sidewise and shortened length¬
wise. The cloth “ fulls up” or thickens while it shortens and
narrows ( shrinks) in the process.
2. Why do sailors at a boat-race wet the sails ?
The pores being full and expanded make the sails more
compact. They will, therefore, hold the wind better.
3 . JVhy does not ivriting-paper blot ?
Because the pores are filled with sizing. (See Popular Chem¬
istry, p. 216.)
4. Why does paint tend, to prevent wood from shrink¬
ing?
Because it fills the pores of the wood at its surface.
o. What is the shape of the surface of a glass of water
and one of mercury ?
Ordinarily the former is concave and the latter convex.
6*. Why can we not dry a towel perfectly by wringing ?
Because of the strength of the force of adhesion, by which
the water is held in the pores of the cloth.
7 . Why will not water run through a fine sieve when
the wires have been greased ?
Because of reversed capillarity between oil and water.
5. Why will camphor dissolve easily in alcohol and not
in water ?
Because there is a strong adhesion between the alcohol and
camphor, and but little between the water and camphor.
9. Why will mercury rise in zinc tubes as water does in
glass tubes ?
Because of the strong adhesion between zinc and mercury.
IN POTULAR PHYSICS.
13
10. Why will ink spilled on the edge of a book extend
farther inside than if spilled on the side of the leaves ?
Because the sensible pores of the paper are short, being only
the thickness of a leaf, while the spaces between the leaves are
longer and continuous.
11. If you should happen to spill some ink on the edge
of your book, ought you to press the leaves together ?
Yes; to make it as nearly solid as possible, until blotting pa¬
per can be applied to remove what has not soaked into the book.
12. Why can you not mix oil and water?
Because there is little adhesion between them.
IS. Why tvill water wet your hand while mercury will
not ?
Because in the former case there is strong adhesion, in the
latter but little.
14. Why is a tub or pail liable to fall to pieces if not
filled with tvater or kept in the cellar ?
Because the moisture dries out of the pores, and the wood
shrinks so as to let the hoops fall off.
15. Name instances where the attraction of adhesion is
stronger than that of cohesion.
Wood fastened by glue will often split before the glue will
yield. Paper stuck with paste, and bricks with mortar, are also
examples.
16. Why does the water in Fig. 18 stand higher inside
of the tube than next the glass on the outside ?
There is the influence of a larger surface of glass in pro¬
portion to the quantity of water to be lifted.
17. Why will clothes-lines tighten and sometimes break
during a shower ?
The rope absorbs water, and expands transversely. This
shortens it with so much force as often to break it. The
shrinking of new cloth when wet illustrates the same prin¬
ciple.
14
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
IS. In casting large cannon, the gun is cooled by a
stream of cold water. Why ?
The object of this is to cause the iron to cool more quickly,
and so not give the molecules time to arrange themselves in
crystals.
19. Why does paint adhere to wood? Chalk to the
blackboard ?
■
These are illustrations of the force of adhesion.
20. Why does a towel dry one’s face after washing ?
The sensible pores of the cloth absorb the water from the
face by adhesion.
21. Why will a greased needle float on water ?
The grease prevents the needle from being wetted, and the
toughness of the surface film of water is sufficient to with¬
stand the weight of the needle.
22. Why is the point of a pen slit ?
So that we may widen at will the surface of contact be¬
tween the ink and the paper. The ink is prevented from de¬
scending rapidly, when the slit is not open, by the grip of its
surface film.
23. If hy is a thin layer of glue stronger than a thick
one?
The adhesion between the glue and the wood is stronger
than the cohesion between the particles of glue; hence the
thinner the layer of glue the fewer the particles acted upon
only by the latter or weaker force.
GRAVITATION.
73 !• Tf hen an apple falls to the ground , how much
does the earth rise to meet it ?
The earth falls as much less distance than the apple, as its
mass is greater.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS .
15
Will a body weigh 'more in a valley than on a mount¬
ain?
It will, because the distance to the earth’s center is less.
3. Will a pound weight fall more slowly than a two-
pound weight ?
They will both fall in the same time, except the slight dif¬
ference which is caused by the resistance of the air. Galileo
propounded this view, and proved it, in the presence of wit¬
nesses, by letting unequal weights fall from the leaning tower
of Pisa.
How deep is a well, if it takes three seconds for a stone
to fall to the bottom of it ?
S = 16 x 3 2 = 144 feet.
5, Is the center of gravity always within a body — as,
for example, a pair of tongs ?
No. It may be entirely outside, and is usually so for a pair
of tongs.
(*. In a ball of equal density throughout, where is the
center of gravity ?
%
At the center of the ball.
7. Why does a ball roll down hill ?
Because the line of direction falls without the small base of
the ball.
S. Why is it easier to roll a round body than a square
one?
Because the base of the ball is so much smaller, and there¬
fore the center of gravity need not be raised to bring the line
of direction without.
9. Why is it easier to tip over a load of hay than one of
stone ?
Because the center of gravity in a load of hay is very high,
and in a load of stone very low. Therefore the center of grav-
16
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
0
ity in the former need not be raised much to bring the line of
direction without the base, while in the latter it must be.
10. Why is a py ramid the stablest of structures ?
Because the base is so broad and the center of gravity so
low. The center of gravity must therefore be lifted very high
before the line of direction will fall without the base.
11. When a hammer' is thrown, on which end does it
most often strike ?
The heavier end.
12. Why does a rope-walker carry a heavy balancing -
pole ?
Because in this way he can easily shift his center of
gravity.
13. What would become of a ball if dropped into a hole
bored through the center of the earth ?
If we assume the earth to be at rest, the ball will move
with diminishing acceleration, but increasing speed, to the cen¬
ter. The momentum thus acquired would carry it an equal
distance beyond, if there be no resistances, and the acceleration
being now negative, the ball will be brought momentarily to
rest at the surface on the opposite side. It will then fall back
past the center, and continue thus oscillating forever. If we
assume the earth to be rotating, the ball will sink from fast-
moving toward slow-moving parts, and strike against the side
of the hole. Friction will soon bring it to rest at the earth’s
center.
11. Would a clock lose or gain time if carried to the top
of a mountain ?
It would lose time, because the force of gravity would be
lessened. At the North Pole it would gain time, because there
the force of gravity would be increased.
15. In the tv inter, would you raise or lower the pendu¬
lum-bob of your clock ?
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
IT
I would lower it, since the cold of winter shortens the pen¬
dulum, and this movement of the hob would counteract that
change.
16. Why is the pendulum-bob generally made flat ?
To decrease the friction of the air.
17. What beats off the time in a watch ?
The vibration of the balance-wheel.
18. Is solved in the book.
19. What should be the length of a pendulum at New
York to vibrate half-seconds ?
(1 sec.) 2 : (| sec.) 2 :: 39.1 in. : x — 9.7 +inches.
To vibrate quarter-seconds ?
(1 sec.) 2 : (£ sec.) 2 :: 39.1 in. \ x — 2.4 + inches.
To vibrate hours ?
(1 sec.) 2 : (3600 sec.) 2 :: 39.1 in. : x = 7997.7 miles.*
20. What is the proportionate time of vibration of two
pendulums, 16 and 61 inches long, respectively ?
According to the 2d law of pendulums,
Time of vib. of 1st: Time of vib. of 2d :: ^/16 : ^/64 :: 4 : 8 :: 1:2.
21. Why, when you are standing erect against a wall,
and a piece of money is placed between your feet, can you
not stoop forward and pick it up ?
By leaning forward you bring the center of gravity in front
of your feet, and, as on account of the wall, you can not
throw any part of your body back to preserve the balance, you
fall forward.
22. If a tower were 198 feet high , tvith what velocity
would a stone, dropped from the summit, strike the
ground ?
v* = 2gh (See p. 64, foot-note.)
*>• = 64x198
v = 112.5 feet.
* Nearly the diameter of the earth.
18 ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
23. A body falls in 5 seconds: with what velocity does
it strike the ground ?
v = 32 1. v = 32 x 5. v = 160 feet.
74 —24. How far will a body fall in 10 seconds?
s = 16 1\ s — 16 x 10 2 = 1600 feet.
With what velocity will it strike the ground ?
v - 32 1. v = 32 x 10 = 320 feet.
25. A body is thrown upward with a velocity of 192
feet the first second ; to what height will it rise ?
Equation (1), v = 32 1. 192 = S2t. t = 6 sec.
“ (2), s = 16£ 2 . s = 16 x 6 3 = 576 feet.
26. A ball is shot upward with a velocity of 256 feet;
to what height tvill it rise ? How long will it continue to
ascend ?
Using equations (1) and (2), as in the last problem, we have
t = 8 sec.
s = 1024 feet.
28. Are any two plumb-lines parallel ?
They are not, since they point to the earth’s center of- grav¬
ity. No two spokes of a wheel can be parallel.
29. A stone let fall from a bridge strikes the water in
three secon ds . What is the height ?
s = 16£ 2 . s = 16 x 3 2 = 144 feet.
30. A stone falls from a church steeple in 4= seconds .
What is the height ?
s — 16£ 2 . 5 — 16 x 4 2 = 256 feet.
31. How far would a body fall the first second at a
height of 12,000 miles above the earth 9 s surface?
(16,000 mi.) 2 : (4000 mi.) 2 :: 16 feet: x = 1 foot.
32. A body at the surface of the earth weighs 100 tons;
what would be its weight 1,000 miles above ?
(5000 mi.) 2 : (4000 mi.) 2 :: 100 tons : x = 64 tons.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
19
33, A boy wishing to find the height of a steeple lets fig
an arrow that just reaches the top, and then falls to the
ground, Tt is in the air 6 seconds. Required the height.
s = 16£*. s = 16 x 3 2 = 144 feet.
34, An object let fall from a balloon reaches the
ground in 10 seconds. Required the distance.
s = 16 x 10 2 = 1600 ft.
35, In what time will a pendulum 40 feet long make a
vibration ?
According to the 2d law of pendulums, and taking the
length of a seconds pendulum as 39 in., we have:
1 sec. : x :: -y/39 : /y/40 x 12 in.
x = 3.5 +sec.
36, Two bodies in space are 12 miles apart. They
weigh 100 and 200 lbs, respectively. If they should
fall together by force of their mutual attraction 9 what
portion of the distance would be passed over by each
body?
The distance passed over by the two bodies is inversely as
their mass ; hence one moves 8 miles and the other 4 miles.
37 , If a body weighs 2,000 lbs, upon the surface of
the earth, what would it weigh 2,000 miles above ?
(6000 mi.) 2 : (4000 mi.) 2 :: 2000 lbs. : x = 888f lbs.
Hoiv much 500 miles above ?
(4500 mi.) 2 : (4000 mi.) 2 :: 2000 lbs. : cc = 1580 +lbs.
38, At what distance above the surface of the earth will
a body fall, the first second, 21\ inches?
A body falls 16 feet* (192 inches) at the surface of the
earth. 21£ inches are | of 192 inches. Now, as the attraction
is inversely as the square of the distance, the distance must be
* According to the best authorities the distance is more nearly feet.
20
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
-y/9, or 3 times that at the surface. Hence, the body must be
12,000 miles from the center, or 8,000 miles from the surface
of the earth. The problem may be solved directly by propor¬
tion, thus:
x 2 : 4000 2 :: 192 inches : 21£ inches.
x = 12000 miles (distance from the center).
12000 miles—4000 miles = 8000 miles.
39, How far will a body fall in 8 seconds ? 1,024 feet.
—In the 8th second? 240 feet. — In 10 seconds? 1,600
feet. — In the 30th second ? 944 feet.
10, How long would it take for a pendulum one mile in
length to make a vibration ?
According to the second law of pendulums (Physics, p. 69),
1 sec. : x : :^/39 :<y/5280 x 12 in.
x = 40 +sec.
41, What would be the time of vibration of a pendulum
04 meters long ?
(1 sec.) 2 : x 2 :: 1 meter (nearly): 64 meters.
x = 8 seconds (nearly).
42, A ball is dropped from a height of 04 feet. At the
same moment a second ball is thrown upward with suffi¬
cient velocity to reach the same point. Where will the two
balls pass each other ?
At the end of one second. The first ball would fall 64 feet
in 2 seconds ; the second would rise for 2 seconds, and they
would pass in 1 second, 48 feet above the ground.
43, Explain the following fact: A straight stick loaded
with lead at one end can be more easily balanced vertically
on the finger when the loaded end is upward than when
it is downward,
"When the loaded end is upward a slighter motion is needed
to bring the line of direction within the base. The principle is
similar to that of the balancing-pole of the gymnast.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
21
44. If a body weighing 1 lb. on the earth were carried
to the sun, it would weigh 27 lbs. How much would it at¬
tract the sun? Ans. 27 lbs.
75— 45. Why does watery vapor float and rain fall ?
Perfect vapor, which is quite invisible, is lighter than air,
and is diffused through it. When condensed into minute drop¬
lets forming clouds, these are prevented from falling fast be¬
cause of the great amount of surface, in proportion to their
weight, exposed to the resistance of the air.
46. If a body weighs 10 kilos, on the surface of the
earth, what will it weigh 1,000 km. above ?
x : 10 kilos. :: (6,366 *) 2 : (7.366) 2
x = 7.5 kilograms.
47• A body is thrown vertically upward with a velocity
of 100 meters, lloiv long before it will return to its origi¬
nal position ? Ans. 20.4 seconds.
48. IIow much time will be required for a body to fall
a distance of 2,000 meters ?
Equation (6) s = %gt*. 2,000 =
2
.\t — 20.2 seconds.
49. What would be the time of vibration of a pendulum
39.1 inches long at the surface of the moon, ivhere the ac¬
celeration of gravity is only 4.8 ft. ?
ft
1 1
t : V :: —— : : -—— (see 3d Law of Pendulum, p. 69).
V9 V9
i. t' • • —4_ • _
V — 2.58 seconds.
50. What would be the time of vibration for the
same pendulum at the surface of the sun, ivhere the accel-
* The radius, or semi-diameter of the earth, is given hy French as¬
tronomers at 6,366 km.
22
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
eration of gravity is 27 times what it is at the earth’s sur¬
face ?
\ ■ t' '' ^ ^ - -
V 32 * V 27 x 33
V = .19 +second.
51. How many vibrations per minute would be made
at the surface of the moon by a pendulum 40 ft. long ?
First find the time of a single vibration.
r'V
40 x 12
4.8
t = 9 + seconds.
Hence, in a minute, the number of vibrations will be not
quite 7.
52. A pendulum vibrates 200 times in 15 minutes.
What is its length ?
15 x 60 ,
= seconds, the time of a single vibration.
1 : :: <\/39.1 : \/x
x = 791.8 inches, or 66 feet nearly.
53. For a certain cloth in New York the pendulum was
made 500 lbs. in weight. IVhat teas the object in making
it so heavy ?
To secure regularity of motion by means of the large mass,
so that variations in resistance may be avoided as nearly as
possible.
54. Pendulums are often supported by knife-edges of
steel resting on plates of agate. Why ?
Because the friction between steel and agate is less than if
any other substances are used. It is desirable to avoid friction
as completely as possible.
55. The acceleration of gravity at the equator is 32.088
ft.; at the pole, 32.253ft. If a pendulum vibrates 3,600
times an hour at the equator, how many times an hour
will it vibrate at the pole ?
IK POPULAR PHYSICS.
23
The number of vibrations per hour varies inversely as the
time of vibration of the pendulum. For t in the formula,
therefore, we may substitute the reciprocal of the number of
vibrations per hour.
3600 x" -y/32.088 * \/32.253
x = 3,609.36 times.
THE MECHANICAL POWERS.
94 - 1. Describe the rudder of a boat as a lever.
The water is the F, the boat the W, and the hand the P.
As the W is between the F and the P, it is a lever of the
second class. By similar reasoning it is easy to analyze the
remaining cases, a door, a door-latch, etc.
95— 2, Show the change that occurs from the second to
the third class of levers, tv hen you take hold of a ladder at
one end and raise it against a building.
At first the ground is the F at one end, the hand the P
at the other, and the ladder the W hanging between ; hence this
is a lever of the second class. After a little, the F remaining
the same, the P is applied at one end, near the F, and the
ladder is the W hanging at the other ; hence this is now a
lever of the third class.
3, Why is a pinch from the tongs near the hinge more
severe than one near the end ?
Because in the former case the tongs are a lever of the
first class—in the latter, of the third. In the first class there
is a gain of power, in the third a loss.
4, Two persons are carrying a iveight of 250 lbs.,
hanging between them from a pole 10 feet in length.
Where should it be suspended so that one will lift only 50
lbs, ?
One lifts 50 lbs. ; the other 200 lbs. The proportionate
length of the arms of the lever should be the same as the
proportionate weights —fie., 1 to 4. ■ 10 + 5 = 2, the unit of
24
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
measure. Hence one arm is 2 feet long and the other 8 feet
long. Proof.— 50 x 8 = 200 x 2. This is the substance also of
the equation P x Pd = W xWd.
*
5. In a lever of the first class, G feet long, where should
the F be placed so that a F of 1 lb, will balance a W of 23
lbs. ?
6 feet = 72 inches. 72 -f- 24 = 3, the unit of distance. The
W must be placed 3 in. and the P 69 in. from the P. Proof.—
23 x 3 = 1 x 69 (Prob. 4).
G. What P would be required to lift a barrel of pork
with a windlass whose aocle is one foot in diameter and
handle 3 ft. long ?
P : W : rad. of axle :: rad. of wheel.
x : 200 lbs. :: ^ ft. : 3 ft.
x = 33^ lbs.
7. What sized axle, with a wheel 6 feet in diameter,
would be required to balance a W of 1 ton by a F of 100
lbs. ?
P : W :: diameter of axle : diameter of wheel.
100 lbs. : 2,000 lbs.:: x : 6 ft.
x = T % ft. = the diameter.
8. What number of movable pulleys tvould be required
to lift a W of 200 lbs. with a P of 25 lbs. ?
/
W = P x twice the number of movable pulleys ;
W
hence -p- = twice the number of movable pulleys.
200 -^-25 = 8. 8-*-2 = 4 = the number required.
9. How many lbs. could be lifted with a system of 4
movable pulleys, and one fixed pulley to change the direc¬
tion of the force, by a P of 100 lbs. ?
W = P x twice the number of movable pulleys.
100 lbs. x (4 x 2) = 800 lbs. = the W.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
25
10. What weight could be lifted with a single horse
power {33,000 lbs. one foot high per minute) acting on a
system of pulleys shown in Fig. 62 ?
W = 33,000 x2x2x2x2 = 528,000 lbs.
11. What distance should there be between the threads
of a screw, that a F of 25 lbs., acting on a handle 3 ft.
long, may lift 1 ton weight ?
P : W :: Interval: Circumference.
25 lbs. : 2,000 lbs. :: x : 72 in. x 3.1416.
x = 2.83 — in.
12. How high could a F of 12 lbs., moving 16 ft. along
an inclined plane, lift a W of 96 lbs. ?
P : W :: height: length.
12 lbs. : 96 lbs. :: x : 16 ft.
x — 2 ft.
13. I wish to roll a barrel of flour into a ivagon, the
booc of ivhich is 4 ft. from the ground. I can lift but 24
lbs. How long a plank should I get ?
P : W :: height: length.
24 lbs. : 196 lbs. :: 4 ft. : x — 32f ft.
14. What W can be lifted with a F of 100 lbs. acting
on a screw having threads 1 in. apart , and a handle 4 ft.
long?
P : W :: Interval: Circumference.
100 : cc :: 1:4x12x3.1416
x = 15,079.68.
15. What is the object of the balls often cast on the ends
of the handle of the screw used in presses for copying let¬
ters ?
By their momentum they make the motion more uniform
and continuous.
16. In a steelyard 2 ft. long, the distance from the
weight-hook to the fulcrum-hook is 2 in. How heavy a
body can be weighed with a 1 lb. weight ?
24 in. - 2 in. = 22 in. 1 lb. x 22 = 22 lbs. = P.
22 lbs.--*- 2 = 11 lbs. = W.
26
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
17. Describe the change from the 1st to the 3d class of
levers, in the different ways of using a spade.
When digging, the ground at the back of the spade is the
F; the ground lifted is the W ; and the hand at the other end
is the P. As the W is at one end, P at the other, and the P
between, this is a lever of the 1st class. When throwing dirt,
the left hand at one end of the spade is the P; the dirt at the
other end is the W, and the right hand between the two is the
P. As the P is between the F and the W, this is a lever of
the 3d class.
18. Why are not blacksmiths’ tongs and fire tongs con¬
structed on the same principle ?
The former are of the 1st class, as power is required: the
latter of the 3d class, as rapidity only is necessary.
19. In a lever of the 3d class, what W will a F of 50
lbs. balance, if one arm is 12 ft. and the other 3 ft. long ?
P : W :: Wd : PcZ.
50 lbs. : x :: 12 ft. : 3 ft.
x = 12^ lbs.
96 — 20. In a lever of the 2d class, what W will a F of
50 lbs. balance, with a lever 12 feet long and W 3 feet
from the F ?
50 lbs. : x :: 3 ft. : 12 ft.
x = 200 lbs.
21. In a lever of the 1st class , what W will a F of 50
lbs. balance, with a lever 12 ft. long and the F 3 ft. from
the W?
50 lbs. : x :: 3 ft. : 9 ft,
x = 150 lbs. _ _
22. In a wheel and axle, the F = 40 lbs., W = 360 lbs.,
diameter of axle = 8 in. Required the circumference of
the wheel.
P : W :: diameter of axle : diam. of wheel.
40 lbs. : 360 lbs. :: 8 in. : x = 72 in. = 6 ft., the diameter of wheel.
6 ft. x 3.1416 = 18.85 ft., the circumference of the wheel.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
27
23. Suppose in a wheel and axle the P = 20 lbs., the 7V~
240 lbs. 9 and the diameter of wheel = 4 ft. Required the
circumference of the axle.
20 lbs. : 240 lbs. :: x : 48 in.
x = 4 in. (diameter of axle).
4 in. x 3.1416 = 12.56 in. (circumference).
24. Required 9 in a wheel and axle, the diameter of the
wheel 9 the diameter of the axle being 10 inches 9 R — 100
lbs. and IV = 1 ton.
100 lbs. : 2,000 lbs. :: 10 in. : cc = 200 in. = 16f ft.
25. Why is the rim of a fly-wheel made so heavy ?
The largest momentum possible is desired. The velocity of
a particle is proportional to its radius in rotation. Hence the
largest part of the mass of the wheel is fixed at the rim.
26. Describe the hammer 9 when used in drawing a
nail, as a bent lever, i. e. 9 one in which the bar is not
straight.
If a lever is bent, or if, when it is straight, the bar is not
at right angles to the lines of action of the P and the W, it is
necessary to distinguish between the arms of a lever and the
arms of the P and the W, regarded as forces which have mo¬
ments around the F. In the latter sense, the arms are the per¬
pendiculars, dropped from the F to the lines of action of the
P and the W.
27. Describe the four levers shown in Fig. 46, when
both the load of hay and the tv eight are considered, re¬
spectively, as the TV and the P.
This is so fully answered in the text that no further expla¬
nation seems necessary. The pupil should be required to as¬
sume values for the W and for each of the lever arms, and
compute the weight of the wagon and hay together. Call his
attention to the fact that half the weight of the wagon and
hay is transmitted at the point P, and the other half at P';
also that the vertical rod at the lift serves only as a connector,
and not as a lever.
28
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
HYDROSTATICS.
I 1 9—1. Why can housekeepers test the strength of lye 9
by trying whether or not an egg will float on it?
The potash dissolved in the water to form lye increases the
density of the liquid. When enough has been dissolved to make
its specific gravity greater than that of-the egg, the egg will
float. This becomes, therefore, a simple but rough means of
testing the amount of potash contained in the lye.
2. How much water will it take to make a gallon of
strong brine?
A gallon. The salt does not increase the volume of the
liquid.
3. Why ought a fat man to swim more easily than a
lean one ?
Because muscles and bones are heavier than fat. The spe¬
cific gravity of a fat man is, therefore, less than that of a lean
one.
6. If ice let bubbles of air pass up through a jar of
water, why will they become larger as they ascend ?
The pressure of the water is less as they near the top, and
so they expand.
7. What is the pressure on a canal lock-gate 14= feet
high and 10 feet wide, when the lock is f ull of water ?
14 x 10 x 7 x 1,000 oz. = 980,000 oz. = 61,250 lbs.
8. Will a pail of water weigh any more with a live fish
in it than without ?
If the pail were full before the fish was put in, then it will
make no difference, since the fish will displace its own weight
of water, which will run over. If the pail is only partially
filled, then, though the fish is upheld by the buoyancy of the
water, since action is equal to reaction, it adds its own weight
to that of the water.
m POPULAR PHYSICS .
29
9. If the water filtering down through a rock should
collect in a crevice an inch square and 250 feet high, open¬
ing at the bottom into a closed fissure having 20 square
feet of surface, what would be the total pressure tending to
burst the rock?
Neglecting the diameter of the fissure, the pressure is the
same on every square inch of the twenty square feet of sur¬
face.
250 x 1,000 oz. x 20 x 144 q-iokaaik
- -——-= 312,500 lbs.
144
10. Why can stones in water be moved so much more
easily than on land?
Because the water buoys up nearly one half of their
weight.
11. Why is it so difficult to wade in the water where
there is any current ?
Because we have to move not only the weight of our own
bodies, but also the water. The kinetic energy of this is pro¬
portional to the mass displaced, and to the square of its velocity.
120— 12. Why is a mill-dam or a canal embankment
made small at the top and large at the bottom ?
Because the pressure of the water increases with the depth.
13. In digging canals, ought the engineer to take into
consideration the curvature of the earth ?
There is no necessity to do so. A water level is in practice
assumed to be horizontal. In geodetic surveys, like that of the
coast line of a country, allowance has to be made for the cur¬
vature of the earth. Station points twenty miles apart, or
more, are taken, between which the earth’s curvature is readily
calculable and perceptible.
14. Why doesnthe bubble of air in a spirit-level move
as the instrument is turned ?
Because the air is lighter than the alcohol, and rises con¬
stantly to the highest point. For this reason, also, the tube is
curved so as to be convex at the center.
30
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
15, Can a sivimmer tread on pieces of glass at the bot¬
tom, of the water with less danger than on land ?
Yes. But he would still find it unadvi sable to try the ex¬
periment.
16, Will a vessel displace more water in a fresh river
than in the ocean ?
In the fresh river, because the specific gravity, and hence
the buoyancy, of fresh water is less.
17, Will iron sink in mercury ?
No. It will float, like a cork on water.
18, The water in the reservoir in New York is about 80
feet above the fountain vn the City Hall Park, If hat is
the pressure on a single inch of the pipe at the latter point ?
(1,000 oz. X 80) -5- 144 = 34.7 lbs.
It), Why does cream rise on milk ?
Because it is lighter than the milk.
20. There is a story told of a Chinese boy who accident¬
ally dropped his ball into a deep hole, where he could not
reach it. He filled the hole with water, but the ball would
not quite float. He finally bethought himself of a lucky
expedient, which was successf ul. Can you guess it ?
He put salt in the water.
21. Which has the greater buoyant force, oil or water?
Water, because its density is greater.
22. What is the weight of 1 cu. ft. of cork ?
1,000 oz. = the weight of 1 cu. ft. of water.
.240 = the spec. grav. of cork.^
240 oz. = the weight of 1 cu. ft. of cork.
4
960 oz. — the weight of 4 cu. ft. of cork.
= 60 lbs.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
31
23. How many oz. of iron will a cubic foot of cork float
in water ?
1,000 oz. = weight of a cubic foot of water.
.240 = spec. grav. of cork.
240 = weight of a cubic foot of cork.
1,000 oz. — 240 oz. = 760 oz., the buoyant force of a cubic foot.
24. What is the specific gravity of a body whose tv eight
in air is 30 grs. and in water 20 grs. ?
30 grs. — 20 grs. = 10 grs.
30 grs. -r- 10 grs. — 3.
The body is three times as heavy as water.
25. Which is heavier, a pail of fresh-water or one of
salt-water ?
A pail of salt-water is as much heavier than one of fresh¬
water as the weight of the salt added to make the brine.
26. The weights of apiece of syenite-rock in air and in
water were 3941.8 grs. and 2607.5 grs. Find its spec,
grav. — Ans. 2.954.
27. A specimen of green sapphire from Siam weighed
in air 21.45 grs., and in water 16.33 grs. Required its
spec. grav. — Ans. 4.189.
28. A specimen of granite weighs in air 534.8 grs.,
and in water 334.6 grs. What is the spec, grav.? — Ans.
2.671.
29. What is the volume of a ton of iron ?
1,000 oz. = weight of 1 cu. ft. of water
7.8 = spec. grav. of iron.
7,800 oz. = weight of a cu. ft. of iron.
32,000 oz. (a ton of iron) -f- 7,800 (weight of a cu. ft.) = 4^\ cu. ft.
32
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
A ton of gold ?
1,000 oz. = weight of a cu. ft. of water.
19.34 = spec. grav. of gold.
19,340 oz. * = weight of a cu. ft. of gold.
32,000 oz.* ~ 19,340 oz. = 1.6, the no. of cu. ft.
A ton of copper ?
1,000 oz. x 8.9 = 8,900 oz.
32,000 oz. 8,900 oz. = 3.6 (nearly) the no. of cu. ft.
30. What is the iveight of a cube of gold 4 feet on each
side ?
4 3 = 64, the no. of cu. ft.
19,340 oz.* (no of oz. in 1 cu. ft.) x 64 — 77,360 lbs.
31. A cistern is 12 ft. long, 6* ft. wide, and 10 ft. deep.
When full of water, what is the pressure on each side?
On one side, 12 x 10 x 5 x 1,000 oz. = 600,000 oz. = 37,500 lbs.
On one end, 6 x 10 x 5 x 1,000 oz. = 300,000 oz. = 18,750 lbs.
32. Why does a dead fish always float on its back ?
It has its swimming-bladder located just under the spine;
and this is the lightest part of its body, and, of course, comes
to the top as soon as the fish dies.
34. A vessel holds 10 lbs. of water; how much mer¬
cury would it contain ?
Mercury is 13.5 times heavier than water. Hence the vessel
would contain 10 lbs. x 13.5 = 135 lbs. of mercury.
35. A stone weighs 70 lbs. in air and 50 in water.
What is its bulk ?
70 — 50 ='20. 20 x 16 oz. = 320 oz., the weight of water displaced.
320 oz. is ^ of a cu. ft.
* In these solutions the student should notice that avoirdupois weight
is used in weighing the gold. To he exact, 1,000 oz., the weight of a cu.
ft. of water, should he reduced to Troy weight, and the lb. gold taken as
12 oz. Troy, when the answer would be about 1.36 cu. ft.
IH POPULAR PHYSICS.
33
36. A hollow ball of iron weighs 10 lbs.: ivhat mast be
its volume to float in water ?
10 lbs. = 160 oz. As a cubic ft. of water weighs 1,000 oz.,
the ball must displace such a part of a cu. ft. of water as 160
oz. is of 1,000 oz., or .16 cu. ft.
37. Suppose that Kiero’s crown was an alloy of silver
and gold, and weighed 22 oz. in air and 20\ oz. in water.
What was the proportion of each metal ?
“Multiply the specific gravity of each ingredient by the
difference between it and the specific gravity of the compound.
As the sum of the products is to the respective products, so is
the specific gravity of the body to the proportions of the in¬
gredients. Then, as the specific gravity of the compound is to
the weight of the compound, so is each of the proportions to
the weight of its material .”—American Cyclopedia.
Second method:
Let A = mass of crown = 22
“ B = sp. gr. “ = 14.66
“ x = mass of gold
then
and since
“ x / = sp. gr. “ = 19.26
“ y = mass of silver
“ y' = sp. gr. “ = 10.5
A = x+y;
mass
vo ume — g p ec j£ c gravity’
we have
a , jl .
B ~x’ y”
whence we find (approximately),
Gold =13.95
Silver = 8.05
121 —38. Why will oil, which floats on water, sink in
alcohol ?
The specific gravity of absolute alcohol is only .79 ; hence
even the dilute alcohol of commerce is lighter than most speci¬
mens of oil.
34
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
39. A specific-gravity bottle holds 100 gms. of water
and 180 gms. of sulphuric acid. Required the density of
the acid. — Ans. 1.8.
40. What is the density of a body which weighs 58 gms.
in air and 46 gms. in water? — Ans. 4f.
41. JVhat is the density of a body which weighs 63
gins, in air and 35 gms. in a liquid of a density of .85 ?—
Ans. 1.9125,
HYDRODYNAMICS.
129 — 1. Two faucets, one 8 feet and the other 4 feet be¬
low the surface of the ivater in a cistern , are hept open for
a minute. How many times as much ivater can be drawn
from the first as the second ?
v
v'
^ = A =Vl = V2 = 1.4142.
y\/2gh' ^h'
Hence the first delivers rather more than 41% more than
the second.
2. How much water will be discharged per second from
a short pipe having a diameter of 4 inches and a depth
of 48 feet below the surface of the ivater ?
The cross section of the pipe is 16x.7854= 12.57 sq. inches,
= .087 sq. feet.
v = \f2gh = -y/64 x 48 = 55.4
55.4 x .087 = 4.8 cu ft.
3. When we pour molasses from a jug, why is the
stream so much larger near the nozzle than at some dis¬
tance from it ?
Because, according to the law of falling bodies, the farther
the molasses falls the faster it falls. The stream, therefore,
becomes smaller as it moves more swiftly, until, at last, it
breaks up into drops.
4. Ought a faucet to extend into a barrel beyond the
staves ?
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
35
No ; this would cause more friction, and increase the resist¬
ance to outflow produced by cross currents.
3, What ivould be the effect if both openings in one of
the arms of Barker’s Mill were on the same side ?
It would cease revolving. The pressure in each direction
would then be equal, and the arms would balance.
PNEUMATICS.
145— 1. Why must we make two openings in a barrel
of cider when we tap it ?
One to let out the cider, and one to admit the air.
2. What is the tveight of 10 cubic feet of air ?
100 cu. in. weigh 31 grs.; hence 10 cu. ft. will weigh 31 grs.
x 172.8 = .7652 lbs. avoirdupois.
3. What is the pressure of the air on one square rod of
land ?
272^ x 144 x 15 lbs. = 588,060 lbs.
4. What is the pressure on a pair of Magdeburg hem i¬
spheres 4 in, in diameter, when the air is entirely ex¬
hausted ?
On each hemisphere the pressure is equal to the area of a
great circle, multiplied by the pressure on each unit of area.
Hence on each hemisphere the pressure is
.7854 x 4 2 x 15 lbs. = 188.5 lbs. nearly.
The sum of the two opposite pressures is thus not quite 277 lbs.
5. Hoiv high a column of water can the air sustain
when the barometric column stands at 28 in. ?
28 in. x 13£ = 3U feet.
6. Tf we should add a pressure of two atmospheres,
what would be the volume of 100 cu, in, of common air ?
The pressure is trebled, and, according to Mariotte’s law, the
volume will be reduced in the same proportion; hence it will
be 100 cu. in. -s- 3 = 33£ cu. in.
36 ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
146 - 7 . If, while the water is running through the
siphon, ive quickly lift the long arm, what will be the effect
on the ivater in the siphon ? If we lift the entire siphon ?
The question assumes the siphon to be flexible. If the bot¬
tom of the long arm be below that of the short arm, the water
flows through it toward the lower level. By lifting it the rate
of flow diminishes until its level is the same as that of the
short arm. On lifting it still higher, the water contained in the
siphon flows back through the short arm, and the siphon is
thus emptied. If, however, the whole siphon is lifted, it is
emptied through the long arm.
8, When the mercury stands at 29 \ in, in the barome¬
ter, how high above the surface of the ivater can ive place
the lower pump-valve ?
In theory, 29^ in. x 13^ = 398^ in.; in practice, the distance
is much less than this.
9, Can we raise water to a higher level by means of a
siphon ?
There is no power in a siphon ; it is only a way of guiding
the flow of water to a lower level.
10, If the air in the chamber of a fire-engine be con¬
densed to T V its former bulk, what will be the pressure due
to the expansive force of the air on every square inch of
the air-chamber ? — A ns, 240 lbs.
1J • What causes the bubbles to rise to the surface when
tve put a lump of loaf-sugar in hot tea ?
The bubbles of air contained in the pores of the sugar rise
because they are lighter than the water.
12, When tv ill a balloon stop rising ? What weight can
it lift?
It will stop rising when the weight of the balloon and its
contents is just equal to that of the same volume of rarefied
air which it displaces. It can lift a weight equal to the dif¬
ference between the weight of the hydrogen or coal gas with
which it is filled and that of the air in which it is immersed,
minus the weight of the balloon itself.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
37
14:, When smoke ascends in a straight line, is it a proof
of the rarity or density of the air ?
Of its density, because it shows that the smoke is much
lighter than the air, and so rises immediately.
lo. Explain the action of the common leather-sucker.
There is nearly a vacuum between the sucker and the slab,
which is buoyed up by the pressure of the air beneath.
16. Did you ever see a bottle really empty ?
No. No absolute vacuum has ever been produced in a bottle
or any other vessel by human agency, so far as is known.
18. How does the variation in the pressure of the air
affect those who ascend lofty mountains ? Who descend in
diving bells?
The outward pressure at a great elevation is partly removed,
and the inner pressure remaining the same, the blood is often
forced through the ears, nostrils, etc. When one descends into
a deep mine the conditions are reversed : the outer pressure be¬
comes in excess of the inner ; severe pain is felt in the ear-drum,
and ringing noises in the head become almost intolerable. These,
however, disappear after a time, when the equilibrium between
the internal and external pressure is restored. It is said that
Humboldt ascended where the mercurial column fell to 14 inches,
and descended in a diving-bell where it rose to 45 inches—thus
making a variation of 31 inches, or a difference of 31,000 lbs.
pressure on the body.
If). Explain the theory of “ sucking cider 99 through a
straw.
By the action of the muscles of the chest the lungs are
made to expand. A partial vacuum in them is thus produced,
and the pressure of the air hence forces liquid through the
straw up into the mouth. By closing the glottis at the right
moment this is prevented from going through the windpipe,
and it is at once swallowed.
20. Would it make any difference in the action of the
siphon if the limbs were of unequal diameter ?
38
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
The flow of water through the narrower part of the siphon
would be faster than through the wider part.
21, What would be the effect of making a small hole in
the top of a diving-bell while in use ?
It would allow the compressed air to be pushed out by the
pressure of the water below.
22. The pressure of the atmosphere being 1.03 kg. per
sq. cm., what is the amount on 10 sq. meters ?
103,000 kg.
ACOUSTICS.
184 — 1 . Why can not the rear of a long column of
soldiers keep time to the music ?
Because it takes time for the sound-wave to pass down the
column, and hence those in the rear do not hear the music as
soon as those in front.
2. Three minutes elapse between the flash and the re¬
port of a thunderbolt: how far distant is it ?
If the air is at the freezing point, the distance is
1,090 ft, x 60 x 3 = 196,200 ft.
3. Five seconds expire between the flash and report of
a gun: what is the distance?
1,090 ft. x5 = 5,450 ft.
4. Suppose a speaking-tube should connect two villages
10 miles apart. How long would it take a sound to jtass
that distance?
52,800 ft -T- 1,090 ft. = 48.4 (sec.)
This is of course a theoretical case. The initial energy
manifested as sound would be transformed into other modes of
energy, such as heat, before complete transmission through so
great a distance in a speaking-tube, unless the sound be more
intense than that of the human voice usually is.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
39
5. The report of a pistol-shot was returned to the ear
from the face of a cliff in 1 seconds. How far was it ?
1,090 ft. x 2 = 2,180 ft.
(i. What is the cause of the difference in the voice of
man and woman ?
Probably the difference depends largely on the thickness
and length of the vocal chords. The difference between a bass
and a tenor, a contralto and a soprano, depends largely also on
quality, just as the sound of the flute and violin on the same
note is recognizably different.
7. What is the number of vibrations per second neces¬
sary to produce the fifth tone of the scale of C s ?
C 3 = 256 vibrations.
256 xf = 384.
8. What is the length of each sound-wave in that tone
when the temperature is zero F. ?
I, 090 ft.-32 ft. = 1,058 ft. 1,058 384 = 2 ft. 9 in. (the length
of each wave).
0. What is the number of vibrations in the fourth tone
above C 2 ?
C 8 = 128 vibrations.
128 xf = 192.
10. If a meteor were to explode at a height of 60 miles ,
would it be possible for its sound to be heard at sea-level ?
No. At such a height the atmosphere would be more rare
than in the best vacuum over produced by human means. The
explosion would produce a sound far too faint to be audible.
II. A stone is let fall into a well, and in four seconds is
heard to strike the bottom ; how deep is the u)ell ?
Disregarding the minute interval required for the transmis¬
sion of the sound,
8 = \gt* = 16 x 4 2 = 256 feet.
40
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
12, What time would be required for a sound to travel
five miles in the still ivater of a lake ?
t =
5x5,280
4,700
= 5.6 seconds.
IS, Hoes sound travel faster at the foot or at the top of
a mountain?
The density and elasticity of the air vary in the same pro¬
portion ; hence if the temperature were the same on top of a
mountain that it is at the foot, the velocity of sound would be
the same, but as it is always colder, the velocity is less.
14, Why is an echo weaker than the original sound ?
Because the intensity of the sound-wave is weakened at each
reflection. In addition to this, the sound which is perceived as
an echo has traveled over a much greater distance than that
which comes directly from the sonorous body.
15, If hy is it so fatiguing to talk through a speaking-
trumpet ?
Because it is unusual, and unusual effort is necessary to se¬
cure adaptation to unusual conditions.
16, Why will the report of a cannon fired in a valley be
heard on the top of a neighboring mountain better than
one fired on the top of a mountain will be heard in the
valley ?
A sound always has the intensity given it by the density of
the atmosphere where it originated, and not of that where it is
heard.
(See Tyndall’s Lectures on Sound , p. 40.)
If, Why do our footsteps in unfurnished dwellings
sound so startlingly distinct ?
In furnished rooms, the chairs, carpets, pictures, etc., break
up the echoes. Then, also, our footsteps are louder on an un¬
carpeted floor.
18, Why do the echoes of an empty church disappear
when the audience assemble ?
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
41
The audience break up the echoes which interfere with the
original sound. Wires strung across a lofty room often serve
the same purpose to a slight extent.
10. What is the object of the sounding-board of a
piano ?
By its vibrations and those of the body of air which it in¬
closes, it re-enforces the sound of the wires.
20. During some experiments, Tyndall found that a
certain sound would pass through twelve folds of a dry
silk handkerchief, but would be stopped by a single fold of
a wet one. Explain.
(See Tyndall’s Lectures on Light , p. 325, for a series of experiments show¬
ing the action of moisture on the propagation of sound-waves.)
21. What is the cause of the musical murmur often
heard near telegraph lines?
It is produced by the vibration of the wires. These are
thrown into motion by the wind and other causes.
22. Why will a variation in the quantity of water in
a goblet, when caused to sound, make a difference in the
tone ?
It changes the area of the vibrating portion of the glass.
23. At what rate (in meters) will sound move through
air at sea-level, the temperature being 20 ° C. ?
Sound moves at the rate of 1,090 feet at 0° C. The differ¬
ence is nearly 2 feet for each degree C.
1,090 feet+ 40 feet = 1,130 feet.
OPTICS.
235 — 1. Why is a secondary bow fainter than the pri¬
mary?
The primary is produced by one reflection and two refrac¬
tions ; the secondary, by two reflections and two refractions.
The additional reflection weakens the ray.
42
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Why are the colors reversed ?
We can understand this by looking at Fig. 164. In one
bow we see that the rays enter the drops at the top, and are
refracted at the bottom to the eye ; in the other, that the rays
enter at the bottom, and are refracted at the top to the eye.
2. Why can we not see around a house or through a
bent tube ?
The rays of light move in straight lines.
3. What color would a painter use if he wished to rep¬
resent an opening into a dark cellar ?
Black.
4. Is black a color ?
No; it is the absence of light, and hence of color.
Is white ?
No. It is the result of mixing a multitude of tints, each of
which loses its individuality as color by union with the rest.
5. By holding an object nearer a light, will it increase
or diminish the size of the shadow ?
It will increase it, because more rays are intercepted.
7 . Where should we look for a rainbow in the morn¬
ing ?
In the west.
8. Can two spectators see the same rainbow ?
They can not, because no two persons can be at the right
angle to get the same color from a drop.
9. Why , when the drops of water are falling through
the air , does the bow appear stationary ?
Because amid the multitude of drops there are always some
in the right direction.
10. Why can a cat see in the night better than a human
being ?
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
43
Because the pupils of its eyes are larger, and so admit more
light.
11. Why can not an owl see distinctly in daylight ?
Its eyes are adapted to faint light. That of bright sunshine
is therefore too dazzling.
12. Why are we blinded when we pass quickly from a
dark into a brilliantly lighted room ?
The pupils of our eyes admit too much light, but they soon
contract to the proper dimensions, and we can then see dis¬
tinctly. When we pass out from a lighted room into a dark
room, the conditions are reversed.
13. If the light on a distant planet is only that
which ive receive , how does its distance from the sun com¬
pare with ours ?
As the intensity of light is inversely as the square of the
distance, the distance is -y/ToO = 10 times as great as ours.
11. If when 1 sit 6 feet from a candle I receive a cer¬
tain amount of light 9 how much will I diminish it if I sit
back 6 feet farther ?
As my distance from the light is doubled, the brightness is
inversely as 2 2 , or only £ as great.
15. Why do drops of rain, in falling, appear like liquid
threads ?
The impression the drop makes on the retina remains until
the drop reaches the ground.
16. Why does a towel turn darker when wet ?
More of the light is transmitted, and less reflected. We see
this illustrated in greasing a bit of paper. It becomes semi¬
transparent because more light passes through it, but looks
darker itself because less light is reflected to the eye.
17. Does color exist in the object or in the mind of the
observer ?
44
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
The property of absorbing energy of special wave length,
and reflecting that of another wave length which we perceive
as color, is a physical property of the object. The perception
of this, as of sound, or of temperature, is finally a mental act.
18. Why is lather opaque, while air and a solution of
soap are each transparent ?
By repeated reflections and refractions in passing through
the mass of lather, no ray can pass through in a straight line.
Transparency is hence destroyed.
19. Wh y does it whiten molasses candy to pull it ?
The viscous mass, by repeated pulling, becomes fibrous. The
fibers at the surface reflect light more regularly, and hence the
candy appears more nearly white.
20. Why does plastering become lighter in color as it
dries ?
Because, as the water evaporates, the mortar transmits less
light, and reflects more light to the eye.
21. Why does the photographer use a lamp with a
chimney of red glass in the “ dark room 99 ?
Because this glass transmits only the longer waves of light,
while chemical effect is produced chiefly by the shorter waves.
22. Is the common division of color's into 66 cold 99 and
“ warm 99 verified in philosophy ?
Yes ; red contains more heat than violet.
23. Why is the image on the camera, Fig. 177, in¬
verted ?
The rays cross each other at the focus of the double convex
lens.
24. Why is the second image seen in the mirror, Fig.
140, brighter than the first ?
The first is formed by reflection from the glass, and the
second from the mercury. As the latter is a better reflector,
the second image will be brighter. Each image after that will
be weakened by the repeated reflection.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
45
27. Which will be seen at the greater distance , a yellow
or a gray body ?
The yellow, since it is brighter.
28. When a star is near the horizon, does it seem higher
or lower than its true place ?
Higher. The light in passing into our atmosphere, is re¬
fracted downward, and the star appears in the direction from
which the ray enters the observer’s eye.
29. Why can we not see a rainbow at midday ?
Because the sun is not in the right position. To produce
the ordinary rainbow, it must be toward the eastern or western
horizon.
30. What conclusion do we draw from the fact, that
moonlight shows the same dark lines as sunlight ?
That its light has the same source as that of the sun, and
is, indeed, reflected sunlight.
31. Why does the bottom of a boat seen under clear
water appear flatter than it really is ?
Because, by refraction, the bottom of the boat is apparently
elevated above its true place.
32. Of what shape does a round body appear in
tvater ?
It appears to be flattened; and hence a round body looks
like an oval one.
33. Why is rough glass translucent while smooth glass
is transparent ?
The minute irregularities scatter the rays of light, and do
not allow them to pass freely to the eye of the observer.
34. Why can a carpenter looking along the edge of a
board tell whether it is straight ?
If the edge is straight, the light will be reflected uniformly
to his eye from the whole length. Any uneven places will make
dark and light spots.
46
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
35, Why can we not see out of the window after tee
have lighted the lamp in the evening ?
The glass reflects the light of the lamp back to our eyes,
and they adapt themselves to the increased amount.
36, TFhy does a ground-glass globe soften the light ?
It scatters the rays.
37, Why can we not see through ground-glass or
painted windoivs ?
They transmit the light irregularly to the eye, and not uni¬
formly, like a transparent body.
38, Why does the moon’s surface appear flat ?
Because it is so distant that the eye can not detect the dif¬
ference between the distance of the center and the circumfer¬
ence.
39, Why can we see farther with a telescope than with
the naked eye ?
Because it furnishes us more light with which to see a dis¬
tant object.
40, Why is not snow transparent, like ice ?
Because it is discontinuous, and the rays of light are broken
by multitudinous reflections and refractions.
41, Are there rays in the sunbeam which ice can not
see?
We can not see the heat or the chemical rays.
42, Why, when we press the finger on one eyeball, do
we see objects double ?
Because the rays from the same external object fall on parts
of the two retinas that do not correspond in position.
43, Why does a distant light, in the night, seem like a
star ?
Because its image on the retina is so small that deception
becomes easy.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
47
44. Why does a bright light 9 in the night 9 seem so much
nearer than it is ?
We judge of the distance of an object by its magnitude, by
its distinctness of outline, and by the size, etc., of intervening
objects with which we compare it. In the night, the brightness
of a light confuses us by its vividness, seeming to be near at
hand. Moreover, we can not see the neighboring objects, whose
distance we know or could estimate in the daylight. Our error
is therefore one of judgment.
45. What color predominates in artificial lights ?
Yellow.
46. Why are we not sensible of darkness when we
wink ?
Because the wink does not last so long as the impression of
the light received just before the wink.
47. Under what condition do the eyes of a portrait
seem to follow a spectator to all parts of a room ?
This is noticed only in a full-face portrait. In that case the
spectator, when he goes to either side, fails to see the side of
the eyeballs, and hence the effect is that of looking directly into
the eye. “A rifleman, portrayed as if taking aim directly in
front of the picture, appears to every observer to be pointing
at him specially.”
48. Why do the two parallel tracks of a railroad ap¬
pear to approach in the distance ?
The visual angle subtended by the distance between two op¬
posite points on the tracks becomes less as the distance of the
observer increases.
4.9. Why does a fog apparently magnify objects ?
It is not the refraction of the rays of light, as is commonly
supposed, which makes an object seem larger when seen through
a mist. It really appears to us in its proper size. The mist,
however, dims the color and the outline, giving it the indis¬
tinctness belonging to a mile in distance, while it has the mag¬
nitude of half a mile. Dr. Wayland relates that, as he was
48
A NS WEES TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
sailing through Newport harbor early one morning, in a dense
fog, he observed on the apparently distant wharf some very tall
men. While he was remarking upon their extraordinary size,
he was astonished to see them jumping about like children, and
otherwise behaving in a most unaccountable manner. Pres¬
ently, as the sun dispersed the fog, he found that he was close
to the wharf, and that the gigantic men were really a party of
small boys amusing themselves with play.
The opposite mistake is made when the atmosphere is more
transparent than that to which we are accustomed. Foreign
travelers in Switzerland, who have started on foot to visit a
glacier or a mountain-peak which seemed within easy distance,
have often been surprised to find, after two or three hours of
brisk walking, that the object of their desire seemed as far
away as at first. So in looking across a sheet of water, where
there are no intervening objects, distance is always underrated.
When we throw a stone at an object in the water we find
that our eye has deceived us, and the stone falls far short of
the mark. For the same reason, objects seen on the shore from
the water seem much less than their natural size. The fact is,
they appear of the magnitude which belongs to the distance,
but we suppose the distance less than it is ; and, associating
this magnitude with diminished distance, they appear to us less
than they really are.
In order to form these judgments correctly, one of these
elements must be fixed. From this we learn to institute a com¬
parison, and thus form an accurate opinion. If we know the
magnitude of an object, the change in its color and outline will
teach us its distance. If we know its distance, we can judge of
its magnitude. Hence, painters, in order to give us a correct
idea of an object which they represent, always place in its
vicinity something with whose real magnitude we are familiar.
Thus, to show the size of a pyramid, an Arab with his camel
may be drawn at its foot. If the pyramid were represented by
itself, its intended size might be mistaken ; but every one knows
the size of a camel, and from this he would judge of the mag¬
nitude of a pyramid.— Wayland's Intellectual Philosophy, p. 78,
et seq.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
49
50. If you sit where you can not see another person’s
image , why can not that person see yours ?
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
under all circumstances. If a ray from the other person is not
reflected at the right angle to reach your eye, then a ray from
you is not reflected at the right angle to reach the other per¬
son’s eye.
51. Why can tve see the multiple images in a mirror
better if we look into it very obliquely ?
More light is then reflected to the eye. The ratio of the
light reflected to the light refracted increases with the angle of
incidence.
52. Why is an image seen in water inverted ?
(Examine Fig. 139 in Physics.)
53. Why is the sun’s light fainter
midday ?
(See Physics, p. 191, note.)
at sunset than at
51. Why can tve not see the fence-posts when we are
riding rapidly ?
Because the images of a succession of objects are formed
on the retina at intervals less than that of the duration of a
retinal impression. Hence, they all become confused, and noth¬
ing is seen distinctly.
55. Ought a red flower to be placed in a bouquet by an
orange one ? A pink or blue with a violet one ?
(See Physics, p. 217.)
These are not complementary colors, and hence do not
strengthen each other by contrast.
56. Why are the clouds white while the clear sky is
blue ?
Prof. Tyndall has shown that the larger particles of vapor
scatter light of all colors, i.e., white light; while the smallest
particles, only the blue rays. In accordance with this fact, the
clouds are white and the sky is blue. If the air were abso¬
lutely pure, free from all foreign matter, and highly rarefied,
50
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
it is thought that the azure of the sky would not be seen, and
the heavens would appear black: the illumination of objects
would be strong and glaring on one side, and on the opposite
side the shadows would be deep and unrelieved by the diffused
light to which we are accustomed. The minute particles of va¬
por in the air serve to scatter the direct rays of the sun, and to
turn them around corners and into places not in the direct line
of the sunlight.
(See a full and interesting discussion in Tyndall’s Lecture on Light, p.
152, et seq.)
5 7. Wh y does shim - milh look blue and new milk
white ?
The fatty globules of the new milk reflect all the colors of
the spectrum to the eye; but when deprived of the cream the
milk reflects the blue light in excess of the others.
58. Why is not the image of the sun in water at mid¬
day so bright as near sunset ?
The angle of incidence being small, most of the light is
transmitted, and but little is reflected. Near sunset the greater
part is reflected.
50. Why is the rainbow always opposite the sun ?
(See Physics, p. 217.)
6*0. Hold a card with its edge close in front of your eye
and look at a distant candle flame in a dark room. You
will probably perceive either a reddish or a bluish fringe
on one side. Explain.
The crystalline lens is not corrected for chromatic aberra¬
tion. (See Physics, p. 219.)
HEAT.
273 —/. Why will one 9 s hand, on a frosty morning,
f reeze to a metallic door-knob sooner than to one of porce¬
lain ?
Because the metal is a better conductor of heat than the
porcelain, and hence conducts the heat from the hand faster.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
51
2 . Why does a piece of bread toasting curl up on the
side toward the fire ?
The water being expelled from the pores on that side causes
the bread to shrink.
3. Why do double windows protect from the cold ?
The non-conducting air inclosed between the window-panes
keeps in the heat and keeps out the cold.
4. Why do furnace-men wear flannel shirts in summer
to keep cool, and in ivinter to keep warm ?
In summer the non-conducting flannel keeps out the fur¬
nace-heat, and in the winter keeps in the body-heat.
3. Why do we blow our hands to make them warm ,
and our soup to make it cool ?
Our breath is warmer than our hands, but cooler than our
soup.
6. Why does snow protect the grass in winter ?
The air inclosed between the flakes of snow is a non-con¬
ductor. No infant in its cradle is tucked in more tenderly than
the coverlet of snow about the humble grass that nestles down
for its winter’s nap on the bosom of Mother Earth.
7. Why does water “boil away 99 more rapidly on
some days than on others ?
Because the atmospheric pressure varies, independently of
the fact that the source of heat may vary without our noticing it.
8. What causes the crackling sound in a stove ivhen a
fire is lighted ?
The expansion of the iron by the heat.
9. Why is the tone of a piano higher in a cold room
than in a warm one ?
The steel wires lengthen in a warm room, and so lower the
tone.
52
A NS WEBS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
10, Ought an inkstand to have a lavge ov a small
mouth ?
A small mouth, to prevent evaporation.
11, Why is there a space left between the ends of the
rails on a railroad track ?
To allow room for the expansion and contraction of the
rails with the changes in temperature.
12, Why is a person liable to take cold when his clothes
are damp ?
The water which evaporates from his clothes, in drying, ab¬
sorbs heat from his body.
13, If hat is the theory of corn-popping ?
The air in the cells of the corn expands by the heat, and
bursts the outer coating of the corn.
14, Could vacuum-pans be employed in cooking?
They could not, because the heat would not be sufficient to
cook the food.
15, Why does the air feel so chilly , in the spring, when
snow and ice are melting ?
When the ice is passing into the liquid state, it absorbs heat
from all surrounding objects.
16, Why, in freezing ice-cream , do ive put the ice in a
wooden vessel , and the cream in a tin one ?
The non-conducting wooden vessel prevents the ice from ab¬
sorbing heat from the external air, and the conducting tin ves¬
sel enables it to absorb the heat from the cream.
17, Why does the temperature generally moderate
ivhen the snow falls ?
The vapor passing into the solid form gives off heat.
19, Why does sprinkling a floor with water cool the
air ?
The water turning to vapor absorbs heat.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
58
20. How low a degree of temperature can be reached
with a mercurial thermometer ?
Nearly to the freezing point of mercury,—39° F.
21. Tf the temperature be 70° F., what is it C. ?
70°-32° = 38°. 38 -f-1.8 = 21.1° C.
If the temperature be 70° €., what is it F. ?
70° x 1.8 = 126°. 126° + 32° = 158° F.
22. Will dew form on an iron bridge ?
Yes, because iron is a good radiator.
On a plank walk ?
Not so readily, because wood is a poorer radiator.
23. Why will not corn pop when very dry ?
The pores shrink, and the corn becomes compact; only por¬
ous, tender-celled corn will pop.
21. When the interior of the earth is so hot 9 why do we
get the coldest water from a deep well ?
The well extends below the influence of the sun, and not
deep enough to be affected by the internal heat of the earth.
25. Ought the bottom of a tea-kettle to be polished ?
No, since a polished surface would reflect the heat. We
need a black, rough, sooty surface to absorb the heat rapidly.
26. Which boils the sooner, milk or water ?
Milk, because it is so adhesive that the bubbles of steam
which are formed at the bottom of the dish can not easily es¬
cape. They therefore pile up on top of each other, and the
milk boils over readily.
27. Is it economy to keep our stoves highly polished?
The stove-blacking used is a good radiator, but the surface
should not be highly polished, as that hinders radiation.
28. If a thermometer be held in a running stream , will
it indicate the same temperature that it would in a pailful
of the same water ?
54
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
It will. For the same reason that a thermometer, in the
wind, will indicate the same temperature as in the still air, al¬
though the former seems to us much colder.
29. Which makes the better holder when one wishes to
protect his hands from a hot dish , woolen or cotton ?
Woolen, because it is so poor a conductor of heat.
30. Which will give out the more heat , a plain stove or
one with ornamental designs ?
The latter, since it has more radiating surface.
31. Does dew fall?
No; it forms directly where it is found. The vapor merely
collects on the cold surface.
32. If hat causes the ii sweating 99 of a pitcher ?
The vapor of the air condenses on the cold pitcher. It is
often a sign of rain, since it shows that the air is full of vapor
easily deposited.
33. Why is evaporation hastened in a vacuum ?
Because the pressure of the air is removed.
31. Does stirring the ground around plants aid in the
deposition of dew ?
It does, since it facilitates radiation.
33. Why does the snoiv at the foot of a tree melt sooner
than that in the open field ?
The tree absorbs the sun’s heat, and then radiates it out,
thus serving as a carrier for the snow.
30. Why is the opening in a chimney made to decrease
in size from bottom to top ?
Because as the heated air rises it cools and shrinks. If
the chimney did not diminish in size correspondingly, currents
of cold air would set down from the top.
37* Will tea keep hot longer in a bright or in a dull
tea-pot ?
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
55
In a bright one, since a polished surface retards radiation.
38. What causes the snapping of ivood when laid on
the fire ?
The expansion of the air in the cells of the wood.
39. Why is one’s breath visible on a cold day ?
The vapor in the breath is condensed by the cold air.
40. What gives the blue color to air?
The particles floating in it reflect the blue light of the sun¬
beam.
41. How does the heat at two feet from the fire compare
with that at four feet ?
2 2 : 4 2 :: 1 : 4.
Hence it is four times greater.
42. Why does the frost remain later in the morning
upon some objects than upon others ?
The best radiators are the best absorbers. They become
warmed by the morning sun more quickly than the poorer
radiators, and the frost on them is hence more quickly melted.
43. Is it economy to use green ivood ?
No. Its sap has to be changed to vapor, thus absorbing a
large amount of energy at the expense of the combustion.
44. Why does not green wood snail ?
The pores are filled with water instead of air. The water
does not expand rapidly enough to burst off the coverings of
the cells, and so simply oozes out gradually, and is vaporized.
45. Why will a piece of metal dropped into a glass or
porcelain dish of boiling water facilitate the ebullition ?
The rougher surface of the metal aids in the formation
and disentanglement of the steam-bubbles. The bubbles cling
longer to a smooth than to a rough surface. This is one
cause of that bumping sound often noticed when liquids are
boiling in glass dishes.
56
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
46. Which can be ignited the more easily with a burn¬
ing-glass, black or white paper ?
Black paper, since it is a much better absorber of heat.
47. Why does the air feel colder on a windy day ?
Because fresh portions of cold air are brought constantly in
contact with our bodies.
48. Could a burning-lens be made of ice ?
Burning-lenses have been made of that material. The rays
have no heating power until the waves of ether are stopped.
They do not elevate the temperature of the medium through
which they pass.
49. IVhy is an iceberg frequently enveloped by a fog ?
The moisture of the air is condensed upon its cold surface.
50. Would deiv gather more freely on a rusty stove
than on a bright kettle ?
It would, because the rusty iron surface is a good radiator.
51. Why is a clear night colder than a cloudy one dur¬
ing the same season ?
On a cloudy night the clouds reflect the radiated heat of the
earth back again, and thus act as a blanket to keep the earth
warm. On such a night there can be no frost or dew. On a
clear night, the heat which the earth radiates passes out freely
into space, and thus the earth cools rapidly.
52. Why is no dew formed on cloudy nights ?
See last question.
53. Why will (i fanning 99 cool the face ?
It brings in contact with the face a current of fresh and
generally cooler air.
54. How are safes made fire-proof?
By filling the space between the inner and the outer iron
plates with a non-conducting material, as plaster, etc., the safe
is rendered nearly fire-proof.
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
57
55. Why can you heat water quicker in a tin than a
china cup ?
Because the metal is a better conductor of heat than the
china.
56. Why will a woolen blanket keep ice from melting ?
The woolen is a non-conductor of heat.
57. Does dew form under trees ?
The trees reflect hack the heat radiated by the earth, grass,
etc., and so prevent the temperature, in general, from sinking
to the dew-point.
58. What is the principle of heating by steam ?
The steam is condensed in the pipes, and gives out as tem¬
perature the energy which had been previously absorbed in
changing water to steam.
59. What is the cause of “ cloud-capped 99 mountains ?
The warm, moist air from the valleys fises against the
mountain sides. Its vapor, previously invisible, becomes con¬
densed by the colder air into a cloud of droplets that float in
the air.
60. Show how the glass in a hot-house acts as a trap to
catch the sunbeam.
(See Physics , p. 259.)
61. Does the heat of the sun come in through our win-
flows ?
(See Physics , p. 259.)
62. Does the heat of our stoves pass out in the same
way ?
(See Physics , p. 259.)
63. The top of a mountain is nearer the sun ; why is it
not warmer ?
(See Physics , pp. 259 and 260.)
67. Can we find frost on the windows and on the stone-
flagging the same morning ?
It requires a much intenser cold to produce the former ef¬
fect than the latter, as glass is a poorer conductor of heat than
58
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
stone. We frequently find, frost on the flagging early in the
fall, but frost on the window is a sign of very severe winter
weather.
08. Why will not snow “pack” into halls except in
mild weather ?
The snow must be very near the melting-point for the press¬
ure of the hand to be sufficient to melt enough of it to pro¬
duce the phenomena of regelation. {Physics, p. 271, 1st note ;
also Tait’s Recent Advances in Physical Science, p. 129, and
Tyndall’s Forms of Water, p. 163.) This principle involves the
theory of Glaciers. “ The masses of snow can not rest on the
steep slopes of Alpine summits. The pressure upon the under
layers is too great to allow them to remain upon their sloping
beds, and they are forced to descend. This descent is accom¬
plished in two forms : that of an avalanche, one of the most
awful and imposing spectacles to witness; or of a glacier,
which is really an avalanche of ice of extremely slow motion.
But the glacier differs from the ordinary avalanche not only in
that its motion is so slow, but in that it consists of ice, thick,
firm, and hard. The principles involved in this transition of
the loose, flaky snow which first falls upon the mountain-top
into the solid ice of the glacier, are very well illustrated, as
Helmholtz has remarked, in the manufacture of the school¬
boy’s snow-ball or snow-man. Very cold snow is always light
and flaky, and can not be made by the pressure of the hands
into a cohesive mass ; in order to succeed in that operation,
snow is always employed which is already at the melting-point,
or only so far below this temperature that the warmth of the
hand suffices to bring it to the required temperature, and then,
by dint of pressure and molding, an icy ball may be easily
produced. So with the formation of the glacier ice. A process
of almost simultaneous melting and freezing goes on among
the under layers of snow, and under an immense and ever-
constant pressure from the weight of the snow above ; thus
solid ice is formed. That this ice conforms itself to the various
windings, constrictions, and dilatations of its rocky channel
during its downward march, is a fact not less familiar than
wonderful.”
IN POPULAR PHYSICS.
59
(if). Why is the sheet of zinc under a stove so apt to be¬
come puckered ?
When zinc cools after expansion it does not return quite to
its former dimensions, and so becomes “ puckered,” as it is
called.
70. Why does a mist gather in the receiver of the air-
pump as the air becomes rarefied ?
“The remaining air, cooled by rarefaction, absorbs heat
from the invisible vapor in combination with it, and renders
the water visible. The mist may be removed by continued ac¬
tion of the machine, or by re-admitting the normal quantity of
air.”
(See Amott’s Physics , p. 448.)
71. Why are the tops of high mountains in the tropics
covered with perpetual snow ?
See question 59.
MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS AND
PROBLEMS FOR REVIEW.
1. Does a plumb - line point to the earth 9 s center of
figure or center of gravity ?
2. In a dark room, let the light of a candle pass through
a small hole in a card, and the image of the candle on the
opposite wall will be inverted. Explain.
3 . How many times heavier is the earth than an equally
large globe of water ?
4. Why does a rocket ascend into the air ?
5. Is the water at the foot of Niagara Falls warmer
than that in the river above ?
6. JVhat causes wheel fire-works to rotate ?
7. A. brass rod covered tightly with thin paper may be
held some time in a flame without the paper being scorched /
while, if the rod be of ivood, the paper will scorch at once.
Why is this difference ?
60
MISCELL ANEO US Q UESTIONS.
8. How would it affect the action of a siphon if it ivere
carried up a mountain ?
9. If a vessel of water containing a floating body be
placed under the receiver of an air-pump, and the air
gradually exhausted, what will be the effect on the floating
body ?
10. IIow will it change the height of the column of
mercury in a barometer to incline the tube ?
lu the image of a written page seen in a mirror 9
why does the writing seem to slope ?
12. Why does a coin placed in a tumbler look larger
when the glass is f ull of water than when it is empty ?
13. Two bodies of different volume weigh the same in
water ; which will weigh the more in mercury, the larger
or the smaller ?
!!• How does the wind drift sand, snow, etc. ?
15. Why does oil “still troubled ivaters” ?
16. Why does crouching down at the highest points in
a swing, and standing up at the lowest point, increase the
velocity ?
17 . 1 Vhat difference would it make in the guinea-and-
feather experiment to force into the tube additional air,
instead of exhausting it, as ordinarily done?
ANSWERS
TO THE
PRACTICAL QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
IN
STEELE’S POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
[The large figures refer to the page of the Chemistry , and the small
ones to the number of the questions.]
26 — 1 . What becomes of the water that “ dries up ” ?
Of the wood that 66 burns up ” ? Is there any destruction
of the matter they contain ?
The water is changed into invisible vapor, and wafted thus
away.
The wood is oxidized into C0 2 and H 2 0, which mingle with
the air. The ashes consist of Si0 2 , K 2 C0 3 , and the oxides of
any other elements present whose compounds with O are not
gaseous.
There is no destruction of the matter contained.
2. Where is the higher oxide formed, at the forge or in
the pantry ?
There is more complete oxidation at the forge. At low
temperatures, decomposition results often in complex products.
*3. Why is the blood red in the arteries, and dark in the
veins ?
When specimens of venous and of arterial blood are sub¬
jected to chemical examination, the differences presented by
their solid and fluid constituents are found to be very small and
inconstant. As a rule, there is rather more water in arterial
blood, and rather more fatty matter. But the gaseous contents
of the two kinds of blood differ widely in the proportion which
62
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
the carbonic acid gas bears to the oxygen ; there being a smaller
quantity of oxygen and a greater quantity of carbonic acid, in
venous than in arterial blood. And it may be experimentally
demonstrated that this difference in their gaseous contents is
the only essential difference between venous and arterial blood.
For if arterial blood be shaken up with carbonic acid, so as to
be thoroughly saturated with that gas, it loses oxygen, gains
carbonic acid, and acquires the hue and properties of venous
blood ; while, if venous blood be similarly treated with oxygen,
it gains oxygen, loses carbonic acid, and takes on the color and
properties of arterial blood. —Huxley’s Lessons in Physiology.
4. Do ive need more O in winter than in summer ?
Yes, if we are much exposed to the open air, and forced to
take abundant exercise in order to keep warm.
5. Which ivould starve sooner, a fat mail or a lean
one?
The lean one. A superabundance of flesh, in a time of
scarcity, is taken up by the absorbents and thrown into the
circulation, thus supplying the place of food in nourishing the
body.
(i. How do teamsters warm themselves by slapping
their hands together ?
This exercise promotes the circulation of the blood, and its
oxidation is thus quickened.
7. Could a person commit suicide by holding his
breath ?
Respiration is entirely independent of consciousness, as is
seen in sleep, coma, etc. It may be interrupted for a few min¬
utes, but no effort of the will can enable one to hold his breath
until life is extinct. The desire for O, the besoin de respirer, or
the respiratory sense, as it is called, becomes at last so great
that the strongest resolution yields the struggle.
8. 7 Vhy do we die tv hen our breath is stopped ?
“ In asphyxia it is difficult to say which destroys life, the
absence of oxygen or the presence of carbonic acid.”— Flint.
IN POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
68
There is an absence of oxygen, so essential to every vital
operation, and also an accumulation of carbonic acid in the
system.
9. IFhy do ive breathe so sloivly when ive sleep ?
The circulation is less rapid, and various functions of. the
body are less active. There is hence less need for rapid oxi¬
dation.
10. How does a cold-blooded animal differ from a
tvarm-blooded one ?
In the imperfection with which the blood is oxygenated.
The lungs are often of small capacity, and loose texture, and
are sometimes wanting entirely. In reptiles a portion of the
blood is not sent to the heart, and hence in the vessels there is
a mixture of arterial and venous blood. The breathing is there¬
fore slow, the motions are languid, and there is little heat.
11. Why does not the body burn out like a candle ?
Because it is renewed by the processes of assimilation and
nutrition as rapidly as it is destroyed by the waste of oxida¬
tion. Whenever the former are in excess we gain flesh; when
the latter, we grow poor.
12. Do all parts of the body change (dike?
The rate of change varies with the amount of oxidation,
and that depends on the use of the organ. The right arm of
the blacksmith must be transformed much more rapidly than
the left.
13. What objects woidd escape combustion if the air
were undiluted O ?
Burnt bodies, i.e., those which are already combined with
oxygen.
14. Why is it difficult to obtain O from the air ?
Because, although free from combination, it is intimately
mixed with 1ST.
15. What weight of O can be obtained from 10 grams
of HgO ?
64
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
HgO : O : : 10 : x.
216 : 16 : : 10 : x.
16x10
x = -gl 6 —~ •' 4 + ’ S rams -
16. How much O can be obtained from 6 grams of
kcio 3 ?
KC10 3 : 0 3 : : 6 : x.
122.5 : 48 :: 6 : x.
48 x 6
x — tqcTp = 2.35 + , grams.
l/w/V«0
17. How much KC10 3 would be needed to produce 2
kilograms of O ?
0 3 : KC10 3 : : 2 : x.
48 : 122.5 : : 2 : x.
122.5 x 2 „ . ...
x — --= 5.1 +, kilograms.
IS. How much KCl would be formed in 2 >reparing 1
kilogram of O ?
KCIO 3 =kci + o 3 .
Hence, O a : KCl: : 1 : x.
48 : 74.5 :: 1 : x.
x = = 1.55 +, kilograms.
19. Js it probable that all the elements are discovered?
No. But all new elements lately discovered have proved to
be chemical rarities. Probably all of the abundant and gener¬
ally useful elements have been discovered.
20. Is heat produced bg oxidation?
It is a manifestation of chemical change. In this sense it
may be considered to be caused by it.
21. What is the difference between kinetic and potential
energy ?
Kinetic energy is energy of motion; potential energy is
that of position. (Consult Steele’s Popular Physics . p. 35.)
22. Why does running cause panting ?
IN POPULAR CHEMISTR T.
65
One of several causes is the need of more O to supply the in¬
creased oxidation in the blood necessitated by unusual exertion.
23. How does O (jive us strength ?
Our muscles, as well as the food from which they are
formed, consist of complex molecules. When they are oxidized,
potential energy becomes kinetic.
24. Does the plant produce energy ?
No ; it only absorbs solar energy, and becomes the medium
of its transformation.
25. If we burn an organic body in a stove it gives off
heat; in the animal body it produces also motion. Ex-
plain .
The force set free by the oxidation of the muscles, and of
the food within the body, is converted into muscular energy.
26. Why does not blowing cold air on a fire with a bel¬
lows extinguish it ?
It may extinguish it if the blast be strong enough. If not
strong enough to cool it below its kindling point, the heat of
oxidation more than balances the cooling from the air.
27. Why does bloiving on a fire kindle it, and on a
lighted lamp extinguish it ?
The answer to the previous question applies to this one also.
28. Why can ive not ignite hard coal with a match ?
The heat of the match is not enough to decompose the coal,
and thus set free gaseous constituents for the production of flame.
29. Why will an excess of coal put out a fire ?
The coal is heated at the expense of the fire, and may reduce
this below the kindling point unless the supply of O is rapid.
30. Could a light be extinguished by merely lowering
the temperature ?
Yes; by contact of a large body that is a good conductor
of heat.
66
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
31. Why is it beneficial to stir a wood-fire, but not one
of anthracite coal?
The gaseous constituents of wood are more easily separated
than those of coal, but the heat evolved in combustion is less.
When once well started, the combustion of the coal is hence
more apt to be self-sustaining.
32. Why will water put oat a fire ?
It absorbs more heat in proportion to its weight than any
other known substance does in changing from liquid to gas.
The production of steam is hence at the expense of the heat of
combustion, and the fuel is soon cooled below its kindling point.
33. What sh ould we do if a person 9 s clothes take fire ?
Smother the flame by wrapping the person as quickly as
possible with a rug, coat, blanket, or any thing of this kind that
may be at hand. If water be near, throw it abundantly on
the burning garment.
34. Ought the doors of a burning house to be thrown
open ?
No, except for the purpose of getting out of it. The in¬
creased supply of air through the opening promotes the com¬
bustion.
35. How much O can be obtained from 100 grains of
HgO?
HgO : O :: 100 : x.
216 : 16 :: 100 : x.
x = 7.4 +, grams.
36. What would be the volume of the O of Question 35
under the standard conditions ?
7.4-+1.43 = 5.17 liters.
37• JVhat would be the volume of the O at 12° C. and
under a pressure of 740 mm. of mercury ?
285 760 _ , „
X ~ 273 X 740 X °’ 1 ^
5.42 + , liters.
IN POP ULAR CHEMISTR Y.
67
38, What would he the volume of the O of Question 10
at 20 ° C. and 750 mm, ?
_ 1.55 293 760 _
x ~ l!43 X 273 X 750 ~
1.35 +,
liters.
39, How much KC10 3 must be employed to make an
amount of O which shall measure 100 liters at 1S° C, and
700 mm. ?
First find how many liters of 0 under standard conditions
would be expanded to 100 liters at 18° C., the given pressure,
760 mm., being itself standard. Call the result V. It is
V=
273 x 100
291 *
Each of these liters weighs 1.43 grams; hence, the total
weight is
W =
27,300x1.43
291
Let x = the required weight of KC10 3 .
Then
0 3 : KC10 3 ::W:x.
48 : 122.5 :
27,300x1.43
291
x.
Hence,
27,300x1.43x122.5
X ~ 291x48
x = 342.4 grams.
37— 1, How could you detect any free O in ajar of N?
By passing into it some NO (see p. 34). It will combine
with the free O, forming red fumes of NO a .
2, How ivould you remove the product of the test ?
By allowing the mixture to stand over water, which will
dissolve the NO s .
3. In the experiment shown in Fig, 9, why is the gas
red in the flask, hut colorless when it bubbles up into the
jar ?
68
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
In the flask, one fifth of the atmosphere was free O, which
produces N0 3 with the NO as soon as this is evolved. In the
jar there is no free O.
4. How much JV'U 3 can be obtained from S grams of
sal-ammoniac ?
From the reaction, 2NH 4 Cl + CaO = 2NH 3 + H 3 0 + CaCl 2 , we
see that for every molecule of NH 4 C1 used we obtain one mole¬
cule of NH a . Hence,
NH 4 C1: NH 3 :: 3 : x.
53.5:17 :: 3 : £r.
x = .95 +, gram.
5. What will be the volume of the JVII S at 20° C. and
770 mm. ?
Taking II as our standard, the density of NH 3 is half its
14 + 3
molecular weight, or —— t = 8.5. The density of O is 16, and
a liter of it weighs 1.43 grams. Hence, a liter of NH 3 weighs
8 5
x 1.43 grams, or almost exactly .76 gram. The volume oc¬
cupied by .95 gram of NH 3 under standard conditions is hence
95
of a liter, or 1.25 liters. At 20° C. and 770 mm. the re¬
quired volume will be
293 760 , ^
co 273 * 770 *
x = 1.324 liters.
6. How much II 2 0 will be formed in the process?
From the reaction we see that one molecule of H 2 0 is
formed for two molecules of NH 4 C1. Hence,
2NH 4 C1: H 2 0 :: 3 : x.
107 : 18 : :3:x.
x = .5 + , gram.
7. How much CaO will be needed ?
From the reaction we see that one molecule of CaO is re¬
quired with two molecules of NH 4 C1. Hence,
IN POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
69
2NH 4 C1: CaO :: 3 : x.
107 : 56 ::3 : x.
x = 1.57 grams.
8. How much N 2 O can be made from 1 gram of am¬
monium nitrate ?
The reaction is
NH 4 N0 3 = 2H 2 0 + N 2 0.
Hence, NH 4 N0 3 : N 2 0 :: 1 : x.
80. 44 :: 1 : x.
x = .55 gram.
9. Hoiv much nitric acid can be formed from 50 kilos
of sodium nitrate (NaNOf)?
The reaction is
2NaN0 3 + H 2 S0 4 = Na 2 S0 4 + 2HNO a .
Hence, NaN0 3 : HN0 3 :: 50 : x.
85 : 63 :: 50 : x.
x = 37 +, kilograms.
10. What causes flesh to decompose so much more easily
than wood ?
It is partly owing to the greater complexity of its molecule,
and partly to the presence of the N, which is very unstable in
its compounds.
11. If a tuft of hair be heated in a test tube 9 the liquid
formed will turn red litmus-paper blue. Explain.
Ammonia is formed by the decomposition of the hair, and
this acting on the red litmus-paper, turns it blue.
12. Why should care be used in opening a bottle of
strong H 3 Nin a warm room?
The space above the liquid is filled with ammonia gas,
which had been dissolved in the water at a low temperature.
Its expansive force is greatly increased when the temperature
is raised. When the stopper is removed, therefore, a concussion
may result.
70
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
13. What weight of N is there in 10 grams of HNO z ?
HN0 8 : N :: 10 : x.
63 :14 :: 10 : x.
x — 2.2 grams.
14. How much sal-ammoniac would he required to
mahe 20 liters of NH Z measured at 25° C. and 744 mm. ?
Refer to the answer of Question 5. A liter of NH 3 under
standard conditions weighs .76 gram.
First find how many liters of NH 3 at 0° C. and 760 7nm.
are required to expand to 20 liters at 25° C. and 744 mm.
Call the result V. Then
273 744
V 298 760 U
Each of these weighs .76 gram. Call the result W.
Then
NH q : 2NILC1 ::W:x.
17: 107
273 x 744 x 20 x.76
298 x 760
--: x.
107 x 273 x 744 x 20 x.76
37 17x298x760
x — 85.8 grams.
15. What is the difference between liquid ammonia and
liquor amm onice ?
Liquid ammonia is the result of condensing the gas by cold.
Liquor ammonise is the commercial name often applied to the
solution of the gas in water.
52— 1. Why, in filling the hydrogen gun, do ive use 5
parts of common air to 2 of H, and only one part of O to 2
of H?
Because the air is only \ oxygen, and hence 5 parts of com¬
mon air are equivalent to 1 part oxygen.
2. Why are coal cinders often moistened with H 2 O be¬
fore using?
(See Popular Chemistry , p. 45, note.)
The H s O being decomposed by the heat of the fire increases
the combustion.
IN POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
71
3, What injury may be done by throwing a small quan¬
tity of II z O on a fire ?
“No more heat is produced by the action of the H 2 0, but
it is in a more available form for communicating heat. The
steam in contact with incandescent charcoal is decomposed—the
O going to the C to form C0 2 , and the H being set free. If
the C is abundant, and the heat high, the C0 2 is also decom¬
posed, and double its volume of CO formed. The inflammable
gases, H and CO, mingled with the hydrocarbons always pro¬
duced, are ignited, making the billows of flame which sweep
over a burning building.” —S. P. Sharples.
4, Why does the hardness of water vary in different
localities ?
The hardness of the water will necessarily vary with the
solubility of the minerals in different localities.
5, What causes the variety of minerals in the ocean ?
Is the quantity increasing ?
The ocean contains the washings of the land. Every min¬
eral soluble in water is borne to the sea. The quantity of min¬
eral matter in the ocean would therefore seem to be increasing,
yet there is a compensation in the return to the soil, of guano,
marine plants, and fish, which are driven on shore by winds
and waves, or carried by the industry of man.
Analysis of sea-water (Schweitzer):
Water.
Sodium chloride. .
Potassium chloride.
Magnesium chloride.
Magnesium bromide.
Magnesium sulphate..
Calcium sulphate ..
Calcium carbonate. .
Iodine.
Ammonia.
9G3.74
28.05
.76
3.66
.02
2.29
1.40
.03
traces
traces
1,000.00
6, Is there not a compensation in the sea-plants, fish,
etc,, which are washed back on the land ?
(See Answer to Question 5.)
72
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS.
7. Since “ all the rivers floiv to the seawhy is it not
full?
Because of the constant evaporation from its surface.
S. What is the cause of the tonic influence of the sea-
breeze?
There are traces of certain minerals which probably give to
the sea-breeze a bracing influence. The air from the ocean is
also, doubtless, highly ozonized. It is free from the contamina¬
tions that so often make the atmosphere of the cities and parts
of the country unhealthy.
9. When fish are taken out of the water , and thus
brought into a more abundant atmosphere, why do they
die?
Fish inhale O through the fine, silky filaments of their gills.
When a fish is drawn out of H 2 0, these dry up, and it is un¬
able to breathe, although it is in a more plentiful atmosphere
than it is accustomed to enjoy.
10. Do all fish die when brought on land ?
No. Some fish have an apparatus for moistening their gills.
They can therefore crawl about in the grass, and even migrate
from one stream to another.
11. What weight of water is there in 100 lbs. of sodium
sulphate (Na*,S0 4 , 10H 2 O), or Glauber 9 s salt?
10H s O : Na 2 S0 4 , 10H 2 0 :: cc : 100 lbs.
180 : 322 : : cc : 100 lbs.
322 x = 18,000 lbs.
x = 55.9 lbs. (H 2 0).
12. What weight of water in a ton of alum ( KAl ,
2SO if 12D 2 0)?
* 12H 2 0 : KAl, 2S0 4 , 12H a O :: cc : 2,000 lbs.
216: 474.5 :: x : 2,000 lbs.
474.5 x = 432,000 lbs.
x = 910.4 lbs. (H 2 0).
13. Dow does the air purify running water?
IN POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
73
The O contained in the air absorbed by the H 2 0 oxidizes
the organic substances, which are the most dangerous impuri¬
ties.
14. JVhat is the action of potassium permanganate as
a disinfectant ?
It gives up its O to oxidize the organic impurities.
15. What weight of II can be obtained from a liter of
water ?
The weight of a liter of water under standard conditions is
1,000 grams. Of this | is H. Hence, the required weight is
111^ grams.
16. Hoiv much Zn must be employed to obtain 100
grams of Hfrom H 2 S0 4 ?
The reaction is
Zn + H 3 S0 4 = ZnS0 4 + 2H.
Hence, 2H : Zn :: 100 : x.
2:65 : :100 : x.
x = 3,250 grams.
17. A liter of II under standard conditions weighs
0.0SO6 gram. What volume of IIat 10° C. and 738 mm.
can be obtained from H 2 S0 4 , by the action of 8 kilos of
Zn?
Zn + H 2 S0 4 = ZnS0 4 + 2H.
Zn : 2H : : 8,000 : x in grams.
65 : 2 :: 8,000 : x.
x = 246.15 grams.
The number of liters under standard conditions is
246.15
.0896 '
At 10° C. and 738 mm., the volume is
_ 246.15 283 760
” .0896 X 273 X 738'
V = 2932.7 liters.
18. How much KClO s would be required to evolve suffi¬
cient O to burn the H produced by the decomposition of 2
grams of 1I 2 O ?
74
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
The weight of H from 2 grams of H 2 0 is^ f gram. The
weight of 0 required to unite with it is 8 x f, or - 1 / gram.
KC10 3 = KC1 + 30.
30 : KC10 3 :: V -: x -
48 : 122.5 :: - 1 / : x.
x = 4.537 grams.
10. Sow much O would be required to oxidize the me¬
tallic Cu which could be reduced from its oxide by passing
over it, when white-hot, 20 grams of Hgas?
The amount required to oxidize the Cu is obviously the
same as that which would be separated from the CuO by re¬
duction. The number of grams of O thus separated must be 8
times the weight of the H, or 160 grams.
20. Sotv much O would be required to oxidize the me¬
tallic Fe which could be reduced in the same manner by 10
grams of H gas ?
To oxidize 10 grams of H would require 80 grams of O. If
this be withdrawn from the oxide of iron, the same amount
would be required to oxidize the iron thus reduced.
21. Why are rose-balloons so buoyant ?
Because the H which they contain displaces air that is
more than 14 times as heavy.
22. Sow much S must be burned to produce a ton of
water ?
A ton is 2,000 pounds. The weight of H in a ton of water
is ^ x 2,000, or 222f pounds. To find the volume of this we re¬
member that the weight of 100 cubic inches of air is 31 grains
(see Popular Physics, p. 131). In every 5 parts of air there are
4 parts of N, weighing 14 times as much as the same volume
of H, and 1 part of O, weighing 16 times as much ; — - X — ^ ^
= 14.4, nearly. Hence, air is about 14.4 times as heavy as H.
Therefore 31 grains will be the weight of 100 x 14.4 cubic
1 440
inches of H, or of ^ ^ of a cubic foot of H. To reduce the
IN POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
75
given weight, 222f pounds, to grains, we multiply by 7,000, the
, - . . , 14,000,000
number of grains m a pound, making —-— - grams.
Then
31
14,000,000 1,440
9
x in cubic feet.
9 “1,728
x = 41,817 cubic feet.
This would be enough to fill a spherical balloon 43 feet in
diameter.
84— 1, Why will pine-wood ignite more easily than
maple ?
It is richer in hydrocarbons, that are readily volatile.
2. Why is fire-damp more dangerous than choke-
damp ?
Fire-damp, CH 4 , contains no O. At the appropriate tem¬
perature of kindling, when mixed with air, it is a dangerous
explosive. Choke-damp, C0 2 , is already a stable compound con¬
taining the largest proportion of O that can unite with C. It
is, therefore, not explosive.
3. Represent the reaction in making C0 2 , showing the
atomic weights, as in the preparation of O on page 12,
CaC0 3 + 2HC1 = CaCl 2 + H 2 0 + C0 2 .
(40 + 12 + 48) + 2 (1 + 35.5) = (40 + 71) + (2 + 16) + (12 + 32).
100 + 73 = 111 + 18 + 44.
173 = 173.
4. Should one take a light into a room where the gas is
escaping ?
No. An important constituent of illuminating gas is the
dreaded fire-damp, CH 4 . Mixed with the air in the room, it
may be exploded by introducing a lighted match or candle.
5, Why does it dull a knife to sharpen a pencil ?
The particles of graphite in the pencil are very hard, and
the knife edge is worn away by friction.
6*. Where was the C, now contained in the coal, before
the Carboniferous age ?
Probably most of it was combined with O, forming C0 2 in
a densely charged atmosphere.
76
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
7. Must the air have then contained more plant food?
Probably it did.
8. What is the principle of the aquarium ?
The inter-dependence of animals and plants, whereby each
supplies the wants of the other. The aquarium is a microcosm
—a world in miniature.*
* I have read somewhere a beautiful Persian fable in which a nightin¬
gale and a rose are represented as being confined in a cage together, and
being dependent upon each other for life. The fable is truth symbolized.
The idea has now become more practical, but not less beautiful. In the
modern aquarium, or drawing-room fish-pond, we see the world in minia¬
ture. It is a self-regulating, self-subsisting establishment, and is con¬
structed on the most perfect principles of chemical economy.
“ Before this truth of compensation between animals and plants was
discovered, many attempts were made to keep fish in small glass globes.
As they soon exhausted the oxygen, and impregnated the water with car¬
bonic acid, it was necessary to change it daily. Finally, but a few years
since, it was discovered that plants evolve oxygen and consume carbonic
acid in the water as well as in the air. Starting out with this idea, about
the year 1850, a Mr. Warrington, an Englishman, set about breeding fish
and mollusks in tanks by the aid of marine plants. He succeeded admi¬
rably for a few days, but after a time a change came over his little world.
Without apparent reason, the water became suddenly impure, and the fish
died. Here was a new agency at work. With the aid of a microscope, Mr.
Warrington explored his tank for the poison that was evidently latent
there. He soon discovered that some of his plants had reached maturity,
and, in obedience to the law of nature, had died. The decaying matter
was the poison of which he was in search. How was this to be counter¬
acted? In nature’s tanks—seas, rivers, and ponds—reflected Mr. Warring¬
ton, plants must die and decay, yet this does not destroy animal life. We
must see how nature remedies the evil. Pie hastened to a pond in tho
vicinity, and examined its bottom with care. He found, as he had antici¬
pated, an abundance of vegetable matter decayed. He likewise found
swarms of water-snails doing duty as scavengers, and devouring the putre¬
fying substances before they had time to taint the water. Here was the
secret; so beautiful a contrivance that it is said Mr. Warrington burst into
tears when it flashed upon him like a revelation.
He, however, quickly dried his eyes, gathered a quantity of snails,
and threw a handful into his little tank at home. In a single day the
water was clear and pure again. The fish throve and gamboled, grew and
multiplied; the plants resumed their bright colors, and the snails not only
rollicked in an abundance of decaying branches, but laid a profusion of
eggs, on which the fish dined sumptuously every day.”
77
IN P OP ULAR CHEMISTR T.
9. What test should be employed before going down in
an old ivell or cellar ?
A lighted candle should be lowered. If that is dimmed or
extinguished, it is not safe for one to descend.
10. What causes the sparkle of wine and the foam of
beer ?
The CO 2 formed in the process of fermentation.
11. What causes the cork to fly out of a catsup bottle ?
The CO 2 which is produced when the catsup ferments.
12. What physical principle does the solidification of
CO 2 illustrate ?
That evaporation is a cooling process. A portion of the
liquid C0 2 turns to vapor, and thus abstracts so much heat
from the remainder as to freeze it. (See Popular Physics, p.
255.)
13. Why does the division in the chimney shown in
Fig. 29 produce two currents ?
For a few moments there is an uncertainty—a condition of
unstable equilibrium. The heated air is tending to rise, and
the cold air tending to come in to supply its place. The situ¬
ation of the candle in the jar determines the length of time
before the currents start. If the candle be placed on one side
of the jar, they will be established almost instantly.
11. What causes the unpleasant odor of coal-gas? Is
it useful ?
Impurities which it contains. Olefiant gas has a faint
sweetish odor, while carbonic oxide and hydrogen, when pure,
are inodorous. The disagreeable smell is due in part to acety¬
lene (C 2 H 2 ). The unpleasant odor warns us of the presence of
coal-gas.
15. What causes the sparkling often seen in a gas¬
light ?
Particles of solid taken up mechanically in the process of
purification, or otherwise.
78
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
16, Why does H in burning give out more heat
than C?
1 lb. of H burned in 0 emits heat sufficient to melt 315.2
lbs. of ice; and 12 lbs. of carbon converted into C0 2 enough to
melt 700 lbs. of ice. (This subject is quite fully treated in
Miller's Chemical Physics, page 294, et seq.) The cause is not
as yet fully determined, although it is perhaps safe to say that
in ordinary combustion the heat depends on the amount of O
which enters into combination with the fuel.
17, Why do not stones burn as well as wood ?
Because they are already burned, i.e., combined with O.
1S, Why does not hemlock make good coals?
Because (1) of its lack of C, and (2) its porous structure.
19. What adaptation of chemical affinities is shown in
a light ?
If O had the same affinity for C that it has for H, they
would be consumed at once, with little light. The fact that
the H burns first, and thus heats up to the luminous point the
particles of C as they float outward to the air, causes the illu¬
minating power of the hydro-carbons.
20. Why does snuffing a candle brighten the flame ?
Because it removes the charred wick, which diminishes the
heat of the flame by both conduction and radiation.
21. Why is the flame of a candle red or yellow, and
that of a kerosene oil-lamp white ?
(See Popular Physics , p. 243).
The heat of a candle-flame is much less than that of kero¬
sene, and thus the colors characteristic of a lower temperature
are produced.
22. Why does a street gas-light burn blue on a windy
night ? Is the light then as intense ? The heat ?
O is mingled with the flame in sufficient quantities to burn
the H and C simultaneously. Thereby the heat is increased,
IN POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
79
but the light diminished. The principle is that of Bunsen’s
burner.
23. Why does not the lime burn in a calcium-light ?
Lime is a burned body ; its symbol is CaO.
24. Why is a candle-flame tapering ?
(See Chemistry , p. 77.)
The currents of air rushing toward the flame from all sides
give it the conical form.
25. Why does a draught of air cause a light to smoke ?
It lowers the heat of the flame below the point of union
between C and O, and thus the C is precipitated.
26. What makes the coal at the end of a candle-wick ?
The wick at the edge of the flame comes in contact with
the O of the air, and therefore burns.
27. Which is the hottest part of a flame ?
Toward the point of the cone, where the gaseous envelopes
meet and make a solid flame.
28. Why does not a candle-wick burn except at the
edge of the flame ?
There is no O at the center of the flame.
29. How does a chimney enable us to burn without
smoke highly carboniferous substances like oil ?
It prevents the heated products of combustion from becom¬
ing mixed with cold air. These rise, and new air can come in
only at the bottom. The stronger the heat in the chimney the
greater is this draught. A flame, in which the combustion is
imperfect when O is supplied slowly, becomes much brighter
when O is supplied fast enough to produce perfect combustion
of the H, and also to oxidize all the C without allowing any to
pass off as smoke.
30. How much C0 2 in 200 lbs. of chalk ?
80
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
C0 2 : CaC0 3 :: x : 200 lbs.
44 : 100 :: x : 200 lbs.
100 x = 8,800 lbs.
x — 88 lbs. (C0 2 ).
31. What weight of C0 2 in a ton of marble ?
C0 2 : CaC0 3 :: x : 2,000 lbs.
44 : 100 :: x : 2,000 lbs.
100 x = 88,000 lbs.
x = 880 lbs. (C0 2 ).
32. Why does not a cold saucer held over an alcohol
flame blacken, as it does over a candle or • gas-light ?
There is less C in alcohol than in tallow or in coal-gas.
33. Hoiv much CO., is formed in the combustion of one
ton of C ?
C : C0 2 :: 2,000 lbs. : x.
12 : 44 :: 2,000 lbs. : x.
12 x — 88,000 lbs.
x = 7333.33+ lbs. (CO*).
3d. What weight of C is there in a ton of C0 2 ?
C : C0 2 : : x : 2,000 lbs.
12 : 44 :: cc : 2,000 lbs.
44 x = 24,000 lbs.
x — 545.45 +lbs. (C).
35. How much O is consumed in burning a ton of C?
In any quantity of C0 2 , T 8 T of the compound is O, and r 3 T
C. If X 3 X = 2,000 lbs. (C0 2 ), then X 8 X = f of 2,000 lbs. = 5333.33
+ lbs. (O).
36. What weight of sodium carbonate (Ka 2 CO Sf 10
H 2 0, “ carbonate of soda") would be required to evolve 12
grams of C0 2 ?
C0 2 : Na 2 C0 3 10H S 0 :: 12 gm. : x.
44 : 286 : : 12 gm. : x.
44 x — 2,432 gm.
x = 50.72 gm. (Na 2 CO s , 10H 2 O).
IN POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
81
37• How much C0 2 will be formed in the combustion
of 30 gm, of CO ?
CO : C0 2 :: 30 gm. : x.
28 : 44 : : 30 gm. : x.
28 x — 1,320 gm.
x — 47.14 gm. (C0 2 ).
38, What weight of CaCO s ivould be required to evolve
12 grams of CO., ?
CaC0 3 + 2HC1 = CaCl 2 + H 2 0 + C0 2 .
C0 2 : CaC0 3 :: 12 : x.
44 : 100 :: 12 : x.
x = 27 X 3 T grams.
39, What would be the volume of these 12 grams of
CO z at 12 ° C, and 711 mm, ?
The molecular weight of C0 2 [12 + 2(16)], is 44. Its density
is therefore 22. Under standard conditions 1 liter of H weighs
.0896 gm.; therefore 1 liter of C0 2 weighs 22 x .0896 gm., or
1.97 gm. The number of liters that would weigh 12 gm. is
12
hence —or 6.09 liters. At 12° C. and 744 mm. this volume
JL • KJ i
would be expanded to
y =
285 760
273 X 744 X
6.09.
Y = 6.494 liters.
10, How much C would be necessary to furnish CO s
enough to fill a gas-holder 10 meters high and 1 meters in
diameter when the temperature is 25° C., and the barome¬
ter stands 731 mm, ?
First find the capacity of the gas-holder. The volume of a
cylinder is equal to its length multiplied by the area of its
cross action. In this case it is 10 x 3.1416 x (2) 2 , or 125.664
cubic meters. Since in a cubic meter there are 1,000 liters, this
volume is 125,664 liters, the temperature being 25° C., and the
pressure 754 mm. Reducing this to standard conditions, we
V = 125,664 x
273 754
298 X 760'
V = 114,210.5 liters.
have
82
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Each of these liters of C0 2 weighs 1.97 gm. (see answer
to Question 39). Hence the total weight of C0 2 is 114,210.5 x
1.97 = 224,995 gm.
C0 2 : C :: 224,995 : x.
44 : 12 :: 224,995 : x.
x = 61.362 x 3 t grams.
Or x — 61.362+ , kilograms.
4:1. Write in double columns the different'properties of
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide ; thus,
CO 2 is 1, non-inflammable.
2. Atomic weight—44.
3. Specific gravity—1.529.
4. Will not burn.
5. A negative poison.
6. Liquefies at 32°, and a press¬
ure of 38.5 atmospheres.
7. Freely soluble in H 2 0.
8. Forms salts.
Etc., etc.
CO is 1, inflammable.
2. Atomic weight—28.
3. Specific gravity—.967.
4. Burns with a blue flame.
5. A direct poison.
6. Has never been liquefied.
7. Sparingly soluble in water.
Etc., etc.
I IO— 1. If chlorine water stands in the sunlight for a
time, it will only redden a litmus-solution . Why does it
not bleach it ?
Hydrochloric acid is formed, which reddens the litmus.
2. Why do tinsmiths moisten with HCl, or sal-ammo¬
niac, the surface of metals to be soldered ?
It dissolves the coating of oxide, and leaves the surface of
the metal free for the action of the solder.
3. How much HCl can be made from 25 kilos of com¬
mon salt ?
NaCl: Cl :: 25 : x.
58.5 : 35.5 :: 25 : x.
x — 15.17 kilograms.
4. What weight of NaCl would be required to form 25
kilos of HCl?
IN POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
83
2NaCl + H 2 S0 4 = Na 2 S0 4 + 2HC1.
Each molecule of NaCl thus yields one molecule of HC1. -
HC1: NaCl: : 25 : cc.
36.5 : 58.5 : : 25 : x.
x = 40 +, kilograms.
5. SCI of a specific gravity of 1.2 contains about 40
per cent, of the gas . This is very strong commercial acid .
What weight could be formed by the SCI gas produced in
the reaction named in the preceding problem ?
25 kilos = .40 x.
a = 62.5 kilos.
.40
6. What is the difference between sublimation and dis¬
tillation ?
A body is said to sublime when it rises as vapor and con¬
denses in the solid form; when it condenses as a liquid it is
said to distil.
7. Why do eggs discolor silver spoons ?
The sulphur of the egg combines with the Ag, forming
silver sulphide.
8. Explain the principle of hair-dyes•
The two principal chemicals used for dyeing the hair are
lead and silver nitrate. The S in the hair combining with the
Ag makes silver sulphide, or with the Pb, lead sulphide, either
of which stains the hair; the former colors the skin as well as
the hair, while the latter is absorbed through the skin, causing
colics and other diseases such as are common among painters.
The “golden yellow color” lately in fashion is produced by a
solution of arsenic with the hydrosulphate of ammonia. In or¬
der to dye the lighter tints, it is necessary to bleach the hair
with an alkaline solution. See Fireside Science, page 77.
9. Is it safe to mix oil of vitriol and water in a glass
bottle ?
The heat produced by the combination of the two will be
liable to break the glass.
84
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
10. What is the color of a sulphuric acid stain on
cloth ? How would you remove it ?
It is generally red, especially on black woolen cloth. The
color may be restored by a few drops of a solution of common
“soda,” or ammonia.
11. What causes the milky look when oil of vitriol and
water are m ixed ?
Pb from the stills in which the acid is condensed, and which
is soluble in strong H 2 S0 4 , is precipitated when the acid is di¬
luted with H 2 0.
12. What is the chemical relation between animals and
plants? Which perform the office of reduction, and which
of oxidation ?
The animal lives on organized materials, taking up O and
evolving C0 2 , and other oxidized products. The plant lives on
unorganized materials, C0 2 , HO, NH 3 , and salts, organizing
them and evolving O. The function of the animal is oxidation;
that of the plant, reduction. The food of the plant serves
merely to increase its bulk ; that of the animal is employed to
replace the material worn out by the active operations of life.
The animal obtains the energy necessary for its existence from
the oxidation of its own body; the plant obtains the energy
necessary for the organization of its food directly from the
sun.
13. How many pounds of S are contained in 100 lbs.
of H 2 SO i ?
S : H 2 S0 4 :: x : 100 lbs.
32 : 98 :: x : 100 lbs.
98 x = 3,200 lbs.
x = 32ff lbs. (S).
Id. How much O and H 2 0 are needed to change a ton
of S0 2 to H 2 SOt ?
One ton of S0 2 will make lf| tons of H 2 S0 4 : of which -fa
is H, ft is S, and ff is O. f of this O, or fa, comes from the
IN POPTJLAR CHEMISTR Y.
85
air, and f — from the water. (See process of manufacture,
Chemistry , p. 106.) Hence, (O) and (H) = of the acid,
was furnished by the water—^ of Iff tons = ^ ton (H 2 0).
15. Hoiv much O in a lb. of H 2 SO A ?
|f of any quantity of sulphuric acid are O; is H; and
|f are S. Hence, in 1 lb. of H 2 S0 2 there are ff lb. (0).
16. State the analogy between the compounds of O
and S.
O.
h 2 0.
H 2 0 2 (hydrogen dioxide).
C0 2 .
s.
The corresponding compounds possess not only an analo¬
gous composition, but also similar chemical properties.
148 -1. In the experiment with Na.^SO^, on page 154,
an accurate thermometer will show that in making the so¬
lution, the temperature of the liquid will fall, and in its
solidification, will rise. Explain.
(See Popular Physics , p. 250.)
Energy of temperature is absorbed in doing the work of
overcoming molecular cohesion; hence, the thermometer falls
while the salt is becoming liquid. In returning to the solid
state it gives out this energy again as temperature.
2. If, in making a solution of Na^SO^, we use the salt
which has effloresced , and so become anhydrous, the tem¬
perature will rise instead of falling as before. Explain.
This is because a solid hydrate is formed before the salt dis¬
solves in the H 2 0. The same holds true of other anhydrous
bodies, as the chlorides of Zn, Fe, and Cu.
3. Why is KHO z used instead of JVrtN 0 3 for making
gunpowder ?
Sodium nitrate is imported from Chili in large quantities,
and attempts have been made to use it for making gunpowder,*
* Gunpowder is an intimate mechanical mixture of about 1 part niter,
1 part sulphur, and 3 parts charcoal. These proportions, however, vary
86
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
but its tendency to attract moisture has frustrated the plan. It
is now extensively used as a fertilizer, and is said to be the
cheapest form in which N can be furnished the soil.
4. Why is a potassium salt preferable to a sodium one
in glass-making ?
Sodium salts give a greenish tint to the glass.
5. What is the glassy slag so plentiful about a fur¬
nace ? *
A silicate of lime or some other base contained in the ore.
Ordinary Slag from Blast Furnace (Bloxam).
Silica.
Alumina.
Lime..
Magnesia.
Oxide of iron.
Oxide of manganese.
Potash..
Sulphide of calcium.
Phosphoric acid.
somewhat in different countries, as well as in different sorts of powder.
More charcoal adds to its power, hut also causes it to attract moisture from
the air, which of course injures its quality. For blasting rocks, where a
sustained force, rather than an instantaneous one, is required, the powder
contains more sulphur, and is even then often mixed with sawdust to re¬
tard the explosion. The niter, sulphur, and charcoal, having been ground
and sifted separately, are thoroughly mixed, and then made into a thick
paste with water. This is ground for some hours under edge-stones, after
which it is subjected to immense pressure between gun-metal plates, form¬
ing what is known as press-cake. These cakes are then submitted to the
action of toothed rollers, whereby the granulation of the powder is effected.
The grains thus formed are sorted into different sizes by means of a series
of sieves, and thoroughly dried at a steam heat. The last operation, that
of polishing, is accomplished in revolving barrels, after which the powder
is ready for market. The heavier the powder, the greater is its explosive
power. Q-ood powder should resist pressure between the fingers, giving no
dust when rubbed, and have a slightly glossy aspect.—Y oumans.
* The slag is commonly employed for road-making in the neighborhood
of the iron-works. Some attempts have been made to turn the slag to ac¬
count by employing it as a manure for soils deficient in potash, of which
43.07
14.85
28.92
5.87
2.53
1.37
1.84
1.90
trace
100.35
IN POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
87
6. State the formulae of niter, saleratus, carbonate and
bicarbonate of soda, plaster, pear lash, saltpeter, plaster of
Paris, gypsum, carbonate and bicarbonate of potash, sal-
soda, and soda.
Niter, saltpeter.KN0 3 .
Saleratus, pearlash.'.HKC0 3 .
Carbonate of soda, sal-soda.Na 2 C0 3 .
Bicarbonate of soda, “soda”.HlSraC0 3 .
Plaster, gypsum.CaS0 4 ,2H 2 0.
Plaster of Paris.CaSO*.
7. Explain how ammonium carbonate is formed in the
process of making coal-gas.
Nitrogen exists in small quantities in coal, and when that
is distilled at a high temperature, the elements in their nascent
state combine to form this compound.
8. Upon what fact depends the formation of stalactites ?
Water containing carbonic acid in solution will dissolve car¬
bonate of lime freely, but when, on exposure to the air, the
gas escapes, the carbonate is deposited.
f>. Why is HF kept in gutta-percha bottles ?
Because it will dissolve silica, and so destroy a glass bottle.
10. Explain the use of borax in washing.
It softens “hard” water by uniting with the soluble salts
of lime or magnesia, and making insoluble ones which settle
and form a thin sediment in the bottom of pitchers in which it
is placed.
11. How are petrifactions formed ?
Certain springs contain large quantities of some alkaline
carbonate; their waters, therefore, dissolve silica abundantly.
If we place a bit of wood in them, as fast as it decays, parti-
it will be seen that the above slag contains nearly /gth of its weight, in a
form which would be easily rendered available for plants by the combined
action of air and moisture. When the slag is run into water, or blown
into a frothy condition by the blast, it resembles pumice-stone, and is easily
ground to a powder fit for applying to the soil.
88
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
cles of silica will take its place—atom by atom—and thus pet¬
rify the wood. The wood has not been changed to stone, but
has been replaced by stone.
12. In what part of the body, and in what forms, is
phosphorus found ? ,
As a phosphate it is the principal earthy constituent of the
bones. It is also a never-failing ingredient of the brain and
nervous system. The susceptibility of phosphorus to oxidation
especially adapts it to the rapid changes incident to the struct¬
ure and offices of the brain.*
* Phosphorus is an element which can imperceptibly and quickly pass
from a condition of great chemical activity to one of equal chemical inert¬
ness. In virtue of this character, it “ may follow the blood in its changes,
may oxidize in the one great set of capillaries, and be indifferent to oxygen
in the other; may occur in the brain, in the vitreous form, changing as
quickly as the intellect or imagination demands, and literally flaming that
thoughts may breathe and words may burn; and may be present in the
bones in its amorphous form, content like an impassive caryatid, to sustain
upon its unwearied shoulders the mere dead weight of stones of flesh. And
what is here said of the brain as contrasted with the bones, will apply with
equal or similar force to many other organs of the body. All throughout
the living system, we may believe that phosphorus is found at the centers
of vital action in the active condition, and at its outlying points in the
passive condition. In the one case it is like the soldier with his loaded
musket pressed to his shoulder and his finger on the trigger, almost antici¬
pating the command to fire ; in the other it is like the same soldier with
his unloaded weapon at his side standing at ease.”
“ Further, phosphorus forms with oxygen a powerful acid, capable even
of abstracting water from sulphuric acid, and yet perfectly unirritating
to the organic textures. Taking up varying quantities of water, phosphoric
acid assumes no fewer than three distinct forms, which will unite with
one, two, or three atoms of alkali respectively, giving an acid, neutral, or
alkaline reaction. Thus it is available for the most varied uses in the
body. A child is beginning to walk, and the bones of its limbs must be
strengthened and hardened; phosphoric acid, accordingly, carries with it
three units of lime to them, and renders them solid and firm. But the
bones of its skull must remain comparatively soft and yielding, for it has
many a fall, and the more elastic these bones are, the less will it suffer
when its head strikes a hard object; so that in them we may suppose the
phosphoric acid to retain but two units of lime, and to form a softer, less
consistent solid. And the cartilages of the ribs must be still more supple
and elastic, so that in them the phosphoric acid may be supposed to be
IN POP ULA R CHEMISTR Y.
89
IS. Why are matches poisonous? What is the anti¬
dote ?
Because of the phosphorus in the match. Turpentine has
been proposed as a remedy, but is not known to be reliable.
14:. Will the burning phosphorus ignite the wood of the
match ?
It does not give off enough heat in its oxidation to raise the
temperature of the wood to the igniting point. Some substance
of low kindling point, such as sulphur, or which contains a
large amount of O, such as KC10 a , is added to produce violent
oxidation and kindle the wood.
15. What principle is illustrated in the ignition of a
match by friction ?
The conversion of motion into heat.
16. How much H s O would be required to dissolve a
pound of KNO a ?
31 lbs. of cold water, or i lb. of hot water.
17. What causes the bad odor after the discharge of a
gun ?
The potassium sulphide gradually gives up its S to form
H 2 S.
combined with but one unit of base. On the other hand, its teeth must
be harder than its hardest bones, and a new demand is made on the lime-
phosphates to associate themselves with other lime-salts (especially fluoride
of calcium), to form the cutting edges and grinding faces of the incisors
and molars. All the while, also, the blood must be kept alkaline, that oxi¬
dation of the tissues may be promoted, and albumen retained in solution;
and yet it must not be too alkaline, or tissues and albumen will both be
destroyed, and the carbonic acid developed at the systemic capillaries
will not be exchanged for oxygen when the blood is exposed to that gas
at the lungs. So phosphoric acid provides a salt containing two units
of soda and one of water, which is sufficiently alkaline to promote oxida¬
tion, dissolve albumen, and absorb carbonic acid, and yet holds the latter
so loosely, that it instantly exchanges it for oxygen when it encounters
that gas in the pulmonary capillaries. Again, the flesh juice must be kept
acid (perhaps in opposition to the alkaline blood, as affecting the trans¬
mission of the electric currents which traverse the tissues), and phosphoric
acid provides a salt, containing two units of water and one of potash,
which secures the requisite acidity.”— Dr. G. Wilson, Edinburgh Essays , 1856.
90
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
18. Write in parallel columns the properties of com
mon and of red phosphorus.
Amorphous phosphorus.
Common phosphorus.
1. Specific gravity—1.83.
2. Burns at 111°.
3. Odor of garlic.
4. Soluble in CS 2 .
5. Colorless, or straw-yellow.
6. A deadly poison.
1. Specific gravity—2.14.
2. Burns at 500°.
3. Odorless.
4. Insoluble in CS 2 .
5. Brownish red.
6. Harmless.
19.
salt ?
What causes the difference between fine and coarse
(See Chemisti'y, p. 132.)
The rapidity of evaporation in the process of manufacture.
20. Why do the figures in a glass paper-weight look
larger when seen from the top than from the bottom ?
The form of the glass acts like a convex lens to magnify
the apparent size of the figures.
21. What is the difference between water-slacked and
air-slacked lime?
The former is simply calcium hydrate, CaO, H 2 0, while the
latter has absorbed both H 2 0 and C0 2 from the air.
22. Why do oyster-shells on the grate of a coal-stove
prevent the formation of clinkers ?
The lime of the shells acts as a flux with the iron in the
coal, thus dissolving the clinkers, if any form.
23. How is lime-ivater m,ade from oyster-shells ?
The shells are burned, driving off the C0 2 combined with
the CaO in the CaC0 3 , and the lime thus formed is slightly
soluble in water.
24. Why do newly plastered tvalls remain damp so
long ?
The plaster or mortar in drying gives off the water the
lime took up in slacking.
IN POPULAR CIIEMISTRF.
91
25. Will lime lose its beneficial effect upon a soil after
frequent applications ?
Lime acts in various ways to improve the fertility of a soil.
It corrects its acidity, aids in the decomposition of the rocky
constituents, hastens the decay of the humus, and also makes
the soil more porous. It does not, however, benefit the grow¬
ing plant directly, but works up other materials in the soil. It
therefore loses its effect after a time. The Belgian farmers
have a proverb:
“ Much, lime and no manure,
Make farm and farmer poorer.”
26. What causes plaster of Paris to harden again after
being moistened ?
(See Chemistry , p. 141.)
It recombines with water, which was driven off in the
process of its manufacture.
27. What is the difference between sulphate arid sul¬
phite of lime?
The former is a compound of sulphuric acid ; the latter of
sulphurous acid.
28. What two classes of rays are especially abundant
in the magnesium light ?
(See Popular Physics , p. 243.)
The actinic and the luminous rays. The former are less than
5 Tj¥TUj °f an inch in length, and produce chemical change.
29. What rare metals would become useful in the arts
if the process of manufacture were cheapened ?
Magnesium, aluminum, sodium, etc.
30. Why is lime placed in the bottom of a leacli-tub ?
The potash of the ashes is generally in the form of a car¬
bonate, the acid neutralizing in part the strength of the alkali.
The lime combines with the C0 2 .
31. Ts saleratus a salt of K or of J\ a ?
It should be a carbonate of K, but, on account of its
cheapness, the corresponding salt of Na is often sold instead.
92
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
32. Why ivill JVa burst into a blaze when thrown on
hot water, or put on wetted blotting paper ?
The oxidation of the Na produces heat, part of which is
absorbed by the cold water, over which the pellet moves rap¬
idly about, so that the kindling point of H is not quite reached.
If the water be previously heated, or if the Na is prevented
from moving abcut, by resting it on wetted blotting paper, the
H from the H 2 0 is quickly raised to its kindling point. It
burns by taking O from the air, and its flame is colored yellow
by volatilizing some of the Na while the rest is taking O from
the water, and its hydrate is passing into solution.
33. Why are certain hinds ofbrich white ?
They contain no iron, this being the substance which by its
oxidation gives the color to common brick.
34. Illustrate the power of chemical affinity.
Half the crust of the earth is made up of oxides, whose
constituents are held together by chemical affinity. To separate
the O from these elements, with which it is united, is exceed¬
ingly difficult; so much so that the attempt is but rarely ever
made.
33. Why does not a candle lowered into a jar of Cl go
on burning indefinitely ?
The Cl around it becomes mixed with HC1 fumes, which
stop the action.
I3i— 1. JPb is softer than Fe; why is it not more
malleable ?
The facility with which a mass of metal can be hammered
or rolled into a thin sheet without being torn, must depend
partly upon its softness, and partly upon its tenacity. If it
depended upon softness alone, lead should be the most malleable
of ordinary metals; but, although it is easy to hammer a
mass of lead into a flat plate, or to squeeze it between rollers,
any attempt to reduce it to an extremely thin sheet fails, from
its want of tenacity, which causes it to be worn into holes by
percussion or friction. On the other hand, if malleability were
JiV POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
93
entirely regulated by tenacity, iron would occupy the first place,
whereas, on account of its hardness, it is the least malleable of
metals in ordinary use; while gold, occupying an intermediate
position with respect to tenacity, is the most malleable, which
appears surprising to those who are only acquainted with gold
in its ordinary forms of coin and ornament, in which it is
hardened and rendered much less malleable by the presence of
copper and silver.
I .—Relative Malleability of the Metals.
1. Gold.
4. Tin.
7. Zinc.
2. Silver.
5. Platinum.
8. Iron.
3. Copper.
6. Lead.
II.— Relative Tenacity of the Metals.
Lead.
. 1
Silver.
... 121
Tin.
. U
Platinum.
Zinc.
. 2
Copper.
...18
Palladium.
. m
Iron.
0^1
Gold.
. 12
Steel.
III.— Relative Ductility of the Metals.
1. Gold. 5. Copper. 8. Zinc.
2. Silver. 6. Palladium. 9. Tin.
3. Platinum. 7. Aluminum. 10. Lead.
4. Iron. — Bloxam.
2. What is the cause of the changing color often seen in
the scum on standing water ?
(See “ Interference of Light,” Popular Physics, p. 220.)
The thin pellicles of iron-rust on standing H 2 0 produce a
beautiful iridescent appearance, the color changing with the
thickness of the oxide. A soap-bubble exhibits in the same way
a play of variegated colors according to the thickness of the
film in different parts.
3. Hoiv can the spectra of the metals be obtained ?
(See Astronomy , p. 285.)
By looking through a prism at a flame containing minute
portions of the volatilized metal, and no solid particles of C.
4. Ought cannon , car-axles, etc., to be used until they
break or wear out ?
94
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Cannon are condemned and recast after being fired a cer¬
tain number of times, even though they show no flaw, as the
jarring to which they are exposed causes the iron to take on a
crystalline form, and become less fibrous and tough. A cast-
iron gun of 10-inch bore or less, ought to stand 1,000 rounds ;
larger calibers, a smaller number.
5. Why is 6i chilled iron 99 used for safes ?
The iron being cooled so instantaneously, the crystals are
exceedingly small, and the metal is correspondingly harder than
when cast in the ordinary way.
6. Does a blacksmith plunge his work into water
merely to cool it?
The metal is harder when cooled quickly, and therefore re¬
sists wear longer.
7 . What causes the white coating made when ive spill
water on zinc ?
The oxide of zinc which is formed on the surface of the
metal through the favoring influence of the water.
8. Is it well to scald pickles 9 make sweetmeats , or fry
cakes in a brass kettle ?
(See Chemistry , p. 161.)
9. What danger is there in the use of lead pipes ? Is a
lining of Zn or Sn a protection ?
(See Chemistry, p. 162, and Fireside Science, p. 149.)
Zinc and tin are corroded by oxygen, though less readily
than Pb, and, while their salts are poisonous, the lead is soon
laid bare, and this also oxidizes.
10. Is water tvhich has stood in a metal-lined ice-
pitcher health fid ?
(See Chemistry, p. 159.)
The dissimilar metals fastened with solder, which corrodes
in the presence of water, develop a voltaic current which
hastens the oxidation. The salts thus formed are very dan¬
gerous.
Ilf POPULAR CHEMISTR Y.
95
11. If you ask for 66 cobalt 99 at a drugstore 9 what ivill
you get ? If for <* arsenic 99 ?
Impure metallic arsenic is sold as “cobalt,” while arsenious
anhydride is called “arsenic.”
12. What two elements are fluid at ordinary tempera¬
tures ?
Bromine and mercury.
13. Should we touch a gold ring to mercury ?
The mercury will form with the gold an amalgam.
14. Why does silver blacken if handled ?
The perspiration of the body contains S, which combining
with the metal forms silver sulphide, which is black.
15. Why does silver tarnish rapidly ivhere coal is used
for fires ?
S, which is present in coal, forms a silver sulphide.
16. Why is a solution of coin blue ?
From the Cu which is contained in silver coin forming Cu
(N0 3 ) 2 , which is blue.
17. Why will a solution of silver nitrate curdle brine ?
A white, curdy precipitate of silver chloride is formed.
18. Why does writing with indelible ink turn black
when exposed to the sun, or to a hot iron ?
By the decomposition of the silver salt contained in the
ink, and consequent production of Ag 2 0, which stains organic
matter black.
19. What alloys resemble gold ?
Oroide, aluminum-bronze, etc.
20. Why does a fish-hook “ mist out 99 the line to which
it is fastened ?
Ferric oxide and ferric hydrate act as conveyers of O, ab¬
sorbing it from the air and giving it up to organic bodies with
which they are in contact.
96
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
21. Why do the nails in clap-boards loosen ?
See Question 20.
22. Shore that the earth 9 s crust is mainly composed of
burnt, metals.
(See Cooke’s Religion and Chemistry.)
It consists largely of potassium, magnesium, calcium, alu¬
minum, sodium, etc., in combination with O. These compounds
are the products of combustion.
The elements O, Si, Al, Mg, Ca, K, Na, Fe, C, S, H, Cl,
and N—13 in all—probably make up of the earth’s crust.
23. What hind of iron is used for a magnet ? For a
magnetic needle ?
Steel for a permanent magnet, and therefore for a magnetic
needle ; pure soft iron for an electro-magnet.
21. Why does a 66 tin" pail so quickly rust out when
once the tin is worn through ?
These pails are made of sheet iron, which is covered with a
coating of tin, which causes the popular name for them. If
this is scratched through, the iron and tin in contact are ex¬
posed to the water ; voltaic action is started, and the iron rap¬
idly rusts.
25. Why is the zinc oxide found in Neiv Jersey red,
when zinc rust is white ?
The oxide in New Jersey is colored by compounds of iron
and manganese.
26. Should we filter a solution of permanganate of
potash through paper ?
(See Chemistry, p. 157, note.)
No. The salt will give up O and corrode the filter.
27. Why is wood, cordage, etc., sometimes soaked in a
solution of corrosive sublimate ?
This salt possesses strong antiseptic properties.
28. Why does the white paint around a sink turn
black ?
IX POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
97
H 2 S is set free, which, acting on the paint, forms lead sul¬
phide, which is black.
29. Why is aluminum, rather than platinum, used for
making the smallest weights ?
Because of its low specific gravity as compared with that
of platinum.
SO. How would you detect the presence of iron particles
in black sand ?
By a magnet.
31. Which metals can be welded ?
Iron and platinum, most easily ; others also by using a pow¬
erful electric current to heat the ends of the pieces of metal.
32. When the glassy slag from a blast-furnace has a
dark color, what does it sho w ?
It might be anticipated that the appearance of the slag
would convey to the experienced eye some useful information
with respect to the character of the ore and the general prog¬
ress of the smelting operation. A good slag is liquid, nearly
transparent, of a light-gray color, and has a fracture somewhat
resembling that of limestone. A dark slag shows that much
of the oxide of iron is escaping unreduced. Streaks of blue
are commonly found when ores containing sulphur are being
smelted, possibly from the presence of a substance similar to
ultramarine, the constituents of which are all present in the
slag. Again, the slags obtained in smelting ores containing
titanium generally present a peculiar blistered appearance.—
Bloxam.
33. In welding iron the surfaces to be joined are some¬
times sprinkled with sand. Explain.
The silica acts as a flux with the oxide upon the surface,
and lays bare the metal for welding.
34. What is the difference between an alloy and an
amalgam ?
An amalgam is composed of mercury and some other
metal. An alloy consists of any metals whatever.
98
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
35. Steel articles are blued to protect from rusting, by
heating in a sand-bath. Kxplain.
A thin coating of oxide is formed on the surface of the
metal.
36. Give the formulas for copperas and white lead.
1. FeS0 4 = FeO,S0 3 .
2. PbC0 3 = PbO,C0 2 .
37. Why is Hg used for filling thermometers ?
Because it is fluid at all ordinary temperatures.
38. What oxides are formed by the combustion of Na ,
K, Zn , S, Fe, Fb , Cu 9 F, etc. ? Which are bases ? Anhy¬
drides ? Give the common name of each.
(1.) Na 2 0 is formed when Na oxidizes in dry air, or oxy¬
gen at a low temperature. This takes up water with great
avidity, forming HNaO (NaHO), sodium hydroxide. Na 2 0 2 is
made when Na is heated to 200° C. HNaO is the caustic soda
of commerce, and is an alkaline base.
(2.) K in a similar manner, depending upon the tempera¬
ture, forms KoO, K 2 0 2 , and K 2 0 4 . The first, with water,
forms the ordinary caustic potash, HKO, of commerce. It is
an alkaline base.
(3.) ZnO is the only known oxide of zinc. It forms salts.
(4.) Seven compounds of S and O are known, but only two
are of interest—the familiar anhydrides, S0 2 and S0 3 .
(5.) The oxides of iron are four in number: (1) the mon¬
oxide, or ferrous oxide, FeO, from which the green ferrous salts
are derived ; (2) the sesquioxide, or ferric oxide, Fe 2 O s , yield¬
ing the yellow ferric salts; (3) the magnetic or black oxide,
Fe 3 0 4 , which does not form any definite salts; (4) ferric acid,
H 2 Fe0 4 , a weak acid, forming colored salts with potassium.
(6.) Pb forms two oxides, the monoxide and the dioxide.
The former is the well-known litharge, which is the base of
the lead salts.
(7.) Cu has two oxides — the cuprous (Cu 2 0) and cupric
(CuO), both of which form salts, thus giving rise to two series,
IN POPULAR CHE MIS TR Y.
99
the cuprous and the cupric salts. The two oxides are com¬
monly known as the red and the black.
(8.) Phosphorus forms two oxides, phosphorous anhydride
(P 2 0 3 ) and phosphoric anhydride (P 8 0 6 ).
39. Is charcoal lighter than O ?
Charcoal appears at first sight to be lighter than water, as
a piece of it floats on the surface of this liquid; this is, how¬
ever, due to the porous nature of the charcoal, for if it be
finely powdered it sinks to the bottom of the water. Roscoe.
40. Name the vitriols.
The compounds of sulphuric acid, commonly called “the
vitriols,” are as follows:
1. Sulphate of iron, Green vitriol.
2. Sulphate of copper, Blue vitriol.
3. Sulphate of zinc, White vitriol.
41. Is 3Ig univalent or bivalent ? Zn ?
Mg belongs to the zinc class of metals which comprises
magnesium, zinc, cadmium, and indium. These are all bivalent.
42. Name some dibasic acid .
Sulphuric acid.
43. Name a neutral salt. An acid salt.
Sodium sulphate is neutral (Na 2 S0 4 ). Hydro-sodium sul¬
phate is acid (HNaS0 4 ).
44. Calculate the percentage of water contained in
crystallized copper sulphate. Sodium sulphate. Calcium
sulphate. Alum.
(1.) CuS0 4 , 5H 2 0 = 249.5.
5H 2 0 = 90.
Hence, -ffig = .36 = 36 % of copper sulphate is water.
(2.) Na 2 S0 4 , 10H 2 O = 322.
10H 2 O = 180.
Hence, = .55 = 55 % of sodium sulphate is water.
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
(3.) CaS0 4 , 2H 2 0 = 172.
2H 2 0 = 36.
tt 6 2 = .20 = 20 % of gypsum is water.
(4.) A1 2 K 2 , 4S0 4 +24H 2 0 = 949.
24H 2 0 = 432.
Iff = .45 = 45 % of potash alum is water.
45. What is the test for Ag ? Cu ?
Ag can be easily detected when in solution by the precipi¬
tation of the white, curdy chloride, insoluble in H 2 0 and
HN0 3 , and soluble in H 3 N: the metal can be obtained in
malleable globules before the blowpipe, and is reduced from its
solutions by Fe, Cu, P, and Hg. Ag is estimated quantita¬
tively either as the chloride or as the metal.
Copper may be tested (1) by the black insoluble sulphide;
(2) by the blue hydrate turning black on heating; (3) by the
deep-blue coloration with ammonia; (4) by the deposition of
red metallic copper upon a bright surface of iron placed in the
solution.
100
Hence,
Hence,
46. What weight of crystallized 66 tin salts" (SnCl 29
2H Z O) can be prepared from one ton of metallic tin ?
Sn : SnCl 2 , 2H 2 0 :: 2,000 lbs. : x,
H8 •' 225 : : 2,000 lbs. : x.
118 = 450,000 lbs.
« = 3813.56 lbs. (SnCl 2 , 2H s O).
47. 100 parts by weight of silver yield 132.87 parts of
silver chloride. Given the atomic weight of chlorine (35.4)
required that of silver.
32.87 : 100 :: 35.4 : x.
x = 108+ .
48. What is the composition of slacked lime ?
(See Chemistry , p. 139.)
CaO,H 2 0.
49. How is ferrous sulphate obtained? How many
tons of crystals can be obtained by the slow oxidation of
JiY POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
101
230 tons of iron pyrites containing 37,3 per cent, of
sulphur ?
(See Chemistry , p. 158.)
37f % of 230 = 86.25 tons, the weight of S contained in the
pyrites.
S : FeS0 4 , 7H 2 0 : : 86.25 : x.
32 : 278 :: 86.25 : x.
x = 749.296 tons of FeS0 4 , 7H 2 0.
50. Required 500 tons of soda crystals; what will be
the weight of salt and pure sulphuric acid needed ?
Find (1) how much Na there is in 500 tons of “ soda,” and
(2) how much NaCl would he needed to furnish that amount of
the metal in case all were utilized.
(1.) Na 2 : Na 2 C0 3 , 10H 2 O :: x : 500 tons.
46 : 286 :: x : 500 tons.
286 x — 23,000 tons.
x — 80.42 — tons (Na).
(2.) fff of any amount of NaCl is Na ; hence, to furnish
80.42 tons of Na would require fffx 80.42 tons = 204.546 tons
(NaCl).
(3.) By comparing the atomic weights of the substances, it
will be seen that for 46 parts of Na there must be 98 of pure
H 2 S0 4 . ff x 204.546 tons = 435.771 tons (H 2 S0 4 ).
51. Describe the uses of lime in agriculture.
Lime acts in various ways to improve the fertility of a soil.
It corrects its acidity, aids in the decomposition of the rocky
constituents, hastens the decay of the humus, and also makes
the soil more porous. It does not, however, benefit the grow¬
ing plant directly, but works up other materials in the soil. It
therefore loses its effect after a time.
52. How many tons of oil of vitriolcontaining 70 per
cent, of pure acid (H 2 SOf) 9 can be prepared from 250 tons
of iron pyrites, containing 12 per cent. of sulphur ?
(1.) (See Question 49.) 250 tons x .42 = 105 tons (S).
(2.) S : H 2 S0 4 :: 105 tons : x.
32 : 98 :: 105 tons : x.
32 x = 10,290 tons.
x — 321.56 tons (H 2 S0 4 ).
102 ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
(3.) If 321.56 tons (H 2 S0 4 ) is 70 % of the given oil of vit¬
riol, the entire amount would be 321.56 tons x-y 0 ^-= 459.28 tons
(oil of vitriol).
247 -1. How would you prove the presence of tannin
in tea ?
By adding a few drops of a solution of ferrous sulphate.
This would form a dark precipitate of iron tannate.
2. How would you test for Fe in a solution ?
(See Miller’s Inorganic Chemistry , p. 525.)
A solution of nutgalls will give a bluish-black, inky precipi¬
tate. The ferrous- or proto-salts are distinguished by their light
green color, and by their solutions giving (1) a white precipi¬
tate, with caustic alkalies; (2) a light blue precipitate, with po¬
tassium ferrocyanide, which rapidly becomes dark; while the
ferric- or per-salts are yellow-colored, and their solutions yield
(1) a deep reddish-brown precipitate, with the caustic alkalies;
and (2) a deep-blue precipitate (Prussian blue), with potassium
ferrocyanide.
3 . Why can we settle coffee with an egg ?
The albumen of the egg coagulates by heat, and, entan¬
gling the particles of coffee, mechanically carries them to the
bottom.
4. How ivould you show the presence of starch in a
potato ?
A solution of iodine will form the blue iodide of starch.
5. Why is starch stored in the seed of a plant ?
For the growth of the young plant.
(}. Why are unbleached cotton goods darlc-colored ?
Because of the dirt gathered in the process of manufacture.
The cotton balls are snowy white.
7. Why do beans, rice, etc., swell when cooked ?
On account of the bursting of the starch granules.
8. Why does decaying wood darken ?
IN P OP ULA R CHE MISTR Y.
103
On account of the formation of humus, which contains car¬
bon in excess.
9. How would you show that C exists in sugar ?
By heating it until the H and O are all driven off. A mass
of porous charcoal remains on the plate.
10. Why do fruits lose their sweetness when over-ripe ?
(See Miller’s Organic Chemistry , p. 875.)
The vegetable acid contained in the fruit when green, oxi¬
dizes as the ripening process continues, O being absorbed, and
CO s evolved. If this continues too long, the sugar itself be¬
comes oxidized.
11. Why does maple-sap lose its siveetness when the leaf
starts ?
The sugar of the sap is applied to the wants of the grow¬
ing tree.
12. Should yeast-cakes be allowed to freeze?
A cold of 32° will kill the ferment.
13. Why will ivine sour if the bottle be not well corked?
The presence of air will cause the continuation of the oxi¬
dizing process into the second or acetic stage.
I
14. Why can vinegar be made from sweetened water
and brown paper ?
The paper acts as a ferment, while the sugar or molasses is
oxidized into alcohol, and thence into acetic acid.
15. Why should the vinegar-barrel be kept in a warm
place ?
Fermentation takes place to the best advantage at a special
temperature, about 70° F.
16. Why does “scalding” check the “working ” of
preserves ?
The ferment which causes the fermentation is killed by the
heat.
104
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
17 . Is the oxalic acid in the pie-plant poisonous ?
It is neutralized by the alkaline base, with which it is com¬
bined in the plant.
18. How may ink-stains be removed ?
By a solution of oxalic acid, forming an iron oxalate which
is soluble in water, and hence may be washed out.
li). Why is leather black on only one side ?
The solution of copperas, which blackens the leather, is ap¬
plied on only one side.
20. Why do drops of tea stain a knife-blade ?
The tannic acid of the tea combines with the iron, forming
an iron tannate.*
21. Why will not coffee stain it in the same way?
(See Miller’s Organic Chemistry , p. 549.)
The modification of tannin contained in coffee, unlike that
in tea, turns a solution of ferrous sulphate green, and will not
precipitate one of gelatin.
22. Why does writing-fluid darken on exposure to the
air ?
It absorbs O, the iron changing to ferric oxide.
23. What causes the disagreeable smell of a smolder¬
ing ivick ?
A volatile substance, termed acrolein, is produced in the de¬
composition of the oil.
21. Why does ink corrode steel pens ?
The free sulphuric acid of the ink combines with the iron
of the pen.
* The tannic acid of the tea tans the albumen of the milk used in
seasoning the tea, forming flakes of real leather. It has been calculated
that an average tea-drinker, in this way, makes and drinks enough leather
each year to make a pair of shoes. The albumen of milk uniting with the
tannic acid of tea, softens its flavor. This is generally preferred to the
harsh, clear beverage.
IN POPULAR CHEMISTRY.
105
25. How does a bird obtain the CaCO z for its egg
shells ?
. (See chemistry of a hen’s egg in Fireside Science.)
A common hen’s egg is 95 per cent, carbonate of lime, one
per cent, phosphate of lime and magnesia, and two per cent,
animal matter. The shell would weigh over 100 grains, so that
a hen laying 100 eggs in a season would require nearly 1^ lbs.
of CaC0 3 . The hen must in part secrete this from her food,
and in part gather it from the sand, pebbles, etc., she picks up
amid her incessant scratching and searching.
26. Why does new soap act on the hands more than
old ?
The spent lye, which contains the excess of alkali, gradu¬
ally separates from the soap, leaving only the salts in which
the alkali is neutralized by the fatty acids. Also a more com¬
plete combination takes place, whereby some free alkali is
taken up by the acids, perhaps before uncombined. The for¬
mer statement is especially true in the case of soft or home¬
made soap.
27. What is the shiny coat on certain leaves and fruits ?
A species of wax secreted by the plant.
28. Why does turpentine burn with so much smoke ?
Because it contains an excess of carbon.
29. Why is the nozzle of a turpentine bottle so sticky ?
The turpentine on exposure to the air oxidizes, turning to
rosin.
30. Why does kerosene give more light than alcohol ?
It contains more carbon, which, when heated in the flame
of the burning H, gives out a white light.
31. What is the antidote to oxalic acid ? Why ?
Magnesia or chalk, forming an insoluble oxalate.
32. Would you weaken camphor spirits with water ?
106
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS.
No; since camphor is insoluble in dilute alcohol. The prin¬
ciple is the same as that of the precipitation of lead from
dilute sulphuric acid.
33. What is the difference between rosin and resin ?
Rosin is an oxidized resin. Rosin is a species, and resin a
genus.
34=, Why does shim-milk look blue and new milk
white ?
The globules of butter contained in new milk reflect the
light, and so make it look white; but when they are removed,
by the separation of the cream, more light is transmitted, and
only the blue is reflected to the eye.
35, Why does an ink-spot turn yellow after washing
with soap ?
The free alkali of the soap combines with the tannic acid
of the ink, leaving the oxide of iron (ferric oxide), which stains
the cloth yellow.
ANSWERS
TO THE
PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
IN THE
NEW DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
32 a —l. How high is the North Star above your hori¬
zon ?
(See Astronomy, p. 218.)
It should be remembered that the North Star revolves
around the true North Pole at a distance of about 1^ , hence
it marks the exact height of the Pole above the horizon only
twice in twenty-four hours.
2, What is the sun’s right ascension at the autumnal
equinox ? At the vernal equinox ?
At the vernal equinox, the sun is in Aries, and its P. A.=0.
At the autumnal equinox, it is in Libra, and its R. A. = 180 .
3, What was the first discovery made by the telescope ?
(See Astronomy, p. 20; articles in Appletons’ Cyclopedia on Telescope
and Galileo; and, also, Routledge’s History of Science , p. 10 1 .)
Galileo’s telescope was constructed on the principle of an
opera-glass.
4:. How high above the horizon of any place are the
equinoctial points tvhen they pass the meridian ?
(See Astronomy, note, p. 27.)
The co-latitude of the place.
3, Jupiter revolves around the sun in 12 of our years .
Assuming the earth’s distance from the sun to be 93,000,-
OOO miles, compute Jupiter’s distance by applying Kep¬
ler’s third law .
(See Astronomy, note, p. 19.)
108
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
If we square the period of any planet, expressed in years,
and extract the cube root of this product, the result will be the
mean distance from the sun, expressed in astronomical units,
i.e., in radii of the earth’s orbit. Jupiter’s period of 12 years
will give a result of 5.2028. 93,000,000 miles x 5.2028 = 483,-
860,400 miles.
6. The latitude of Albany is 42° 39' JV. ; what is the
sun 9 s meridian altitude at that place when it is in the celes¬
tial equator ?
(See Astronomy, note, p. 27.)
90°— 42° 39'= 47° 21'.
7. What is the co-latitude of a place ?
(See Astronomy, note, p. 27.)
The co-latitude is the complement of the latitude.
S, What is the declination of the zenith of the place in
which you reside ?
(See Astronomy, note, p. 27.)
It equals the latitude.
9. Why are the stars generally invisible by day ?
(See Astronomy, p. 25.)
The stars would be visible in the day-time if it were not for
the atmosphere. Compare the description of a lunar sky, on
page 134 of the Astronomy.
10. Why is the ecliptic so called ?
(See Astronomy, note, p. 58.)
11. Who first taught that the earth is round ?
The discovery of the rotundity of the earth has been as¬
cribed to Thales; others attribute it to Aristotle.
12. What is Astrology ?
A magic art that pretends to foretell events by means of
the stars.
13. How can ive distinguish the fixed stars from the
planets ?
(See Astronomy , pp. 2 and 203.)
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
109
14. How long ivas the Ptolemaic system accepted?
It was taught in the schools for about 1400 years, or until
the time of G-alileo—the 17th century.
15. In what respect did the Copernican system differ
from the one now received ?
(See Astronomy , p. 14.)
16. For what is Astronomy indebted to Galileo? To
Newton ?
Galileo discovered the structure of the moon; the existence
of Jupiter’s moons and their revolution around their primary;
the stars of the milky way ; and the rotation of the sun on
its axis (as proved by the appearance of the spots). Newton
discovered the law of gravitation, and by means of it explained
the specific gravity of the planets, the cause of the tides, the
shape of the earth, the theory of precession of the equinoxes,
and the paths of the comets. Read Brewster’s Life of Newton;
also, Buckley’s History of Natural Science.
17. What is the amount of the obliquity of the ecliptic ?
(See Astronomy , p. 29.)
18. Define Zenith. Nadir. Azimuth. Altitude. Equi¬
noctial. Right Ascension. Declination. Equinox. Eclip¬
tic. Colure. Solstice. Polar * distance. Zenith distance.
The Zodiac.
These terms are defined under the various subjects on pp.
26-30 of the Astronomy.
19. If the It. A. of the sun be 80 °, state in ivhat sign he
is then located. 160°. 280°.
(See Astronomy , table on p. 31.)
1 sign = 30°. 80° would locate the sun in Gemini; 160°, in
Virgo ; 280°, in Capricornus.
20. Why docs the angle which the ecliptic makes with
the horizon vary ?
(See Astronomy , p. 29.)
The angle between the horizon and the celestial equator is
constant; the ecliptic being oblique to the equator, the angle
that it makes with the horizon must vary as it revolves.
110
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
21. Why is the angle which the celestial equator makes
tvith the horizon constant ?
(See Astronomy , p. 29.)
The celestial equator is perpendicular to the axis of the
heavens, and hence all parts of it make the same angle with
the celestial axis and with the horizon.
198—1. Would the earth rise and set to a Lunarian ?
(See Astronomy , p. 134.)
The earth would not rise or set, as the moon does with us,
but would merely oscillate to and fro through a few degrees.
A Lunarian would see the earth constantly in the sky, under¬
going all the phases the moon presents to the earth. But when
it is full moon to us, it is new earth on the moon. During the
first and last quarters, the changes would occur during the day¬
time ; during the second and third, in the night. The rapid
rotation of the earth, repeated fifteen times during a lunar
night, must greatly diversify the appearance of the earth.—See
Olmstead’s Letters on Astronomy, p. 180.
2. Could there be a transit of Jupiter ?
(See Astronomy , p. 67.)
No. Jupiter is a superior planet.
3. Why does Mars 2 3 * * * * * 9 inner-moon rise in the west ?
(See Astronomy , ‘note on p. 163.)
This satellite performs a revolution in its orbit in less than
half the time that Mars revolves on its axis. In consequence,
to the inhabitants of Mars, it would seem to rise in the west
and set in the east. The revolution of the moon around the
earth and of the earth on its axis, are both from west to east;
but, the latter revolution being the more rapid, the apparent
diurnal motion of the moon is from east to west. In the case
of the inner satellite of Mars, however, this is reversed, and it
therefore appears to move in the actual direction of its orbital
motion. The rapidity of its phases is also equally remarkable.
It is less than two hours from new moon to first quarter.—New¬
comb and Holden’s Astronomy , p. 339.
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
Ill
4. In what part of the shy do you alivays look for the
planets ?
Within the limits of the Zodiac. A few of the asteroids
only pass outside this belt of the heavens.
5. Show how it was impossible for the darkness that
occurred at the time of the Crucifixion of Christ to have
been caused by an eclipse of the sun.
The Feast of the Passover took place at full moon. “With
the Jews, a month began when the new moon was seen. Per¬
sons were appointed to watch, about the time it was expected,
on the tops of mountains. As soon as they saw its light, they
gave notice by sounding trumpets and building fires.”—Nevin’s
Biblical Antiquities.
0. Is there any danger of a collision between the earth
and a comet ?
(See Astronomy , p 192.)
A collision between the earth and a comet must be a rare
occurrence. Babinet computed that one would strike the earth,
on the average, every 15,000,000 years. There are certainly,
however, comets whose orbits cross the earth’s path, and if we
should happen to reach the crossing at the same time with one
of them, there would be a collision. We should probably never
know of the event unless we were watching for it.
7. How are aerolites distinguished ?
(See Astronomy , pp. 177, 178.)
Aerolites, when found, generally have an exterior crust of
fused material, presenting a glossy, pitch-like appearance. An
analysis of the interior commonly presents a combination of
elements that is so characteristic as to identify the body as an
aerolite even when not seen to fall. Large masses have been
found in Northern Mexico which are thus known to be of me¬
teoric origin.
“ The meteoric stones may be divided into two distinct
groups —meteoric iron, and meteoric stones proper.
“1. Meteoric iron is an alloy of iron and nickel, containing
about 10 per cent, of nickel, and small quantities of cobalt,
112
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
manganese, magnesium, tin, copper, and carbon. This alloy has
not been found among terrestrial minerals.
“2. The meteoric stones proper are composed of minerals
of volcanic origin, and such as are found abundantly in terres¬
trial lavas and trap-rocks, viz. :
Magnetic iron, Olivine,
Sphene, Anorthite,
Chrome iron, Labradorite,
Apatite (?), Augite,
together with a varying proportion of the meteoric iron-nickel
alloy.”—Haughton’s Astronomy.
8 .
r ise ?
When do we see the old moon in the west after sun-
(See Astronomy , p. 127.)
9. When do ive see the moon high in the eastern sky in
the afternoon before the sun sets ?
(See Astronomy, p. 127.)
During the second quarter, before she comes into opposition.
10, When is a planet morning, and when evening,
star?
(See Astronomy , pp. 65, 70.)
11. Is the sun really hotter in summer than in winter ?
(See Astronomy, p. 101.)
12. Wh y is a planet invisible at conjunction ?
(See Astronomy, p. 65.)
IS. JYIust an inferior planet always be in the same part
of the sin/ as the sun ? A superior planet ?
(See Astronomy, pp. 64 and 67.)
14. Why, in summer, does the sun, at rising and at set¬
ting, shine on the north side of certain houses ?
Since at the summer solstice the sun rises and sets north of
the L. and W. points, it will rise and set on the north side of
a house which stands exactly N. and S. At the winter solstice
the sun rises and sets S. of the E. and W. points.
15. What effect does the volume of a planet have upon
the force of gravity at its surface ?
(See Astronomy, pp. 40, 80.)
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
113
16. In what part of the heavens do we see the new
moon ? The old moon ? The crescent moon ?
(See Astronomy , p. 127 et seq.)
It is a very interesting experiment to notice how soon after
conjunction we can observe the new moon. Observers have de¬
tected her when twenty-three hours old, and an instance is on
record of the moon’s thin crescent being seen early one morn¬
ing before sunrise, and after sundown the following day.
17• What is the Golden Number in the almanac?
(See Astronomy , p. 145.)
18. Why do we have more lunar than solar eclipses ?
(See Astronomy , p. 146.)
Really, solar eclipses occur more frequently than lunar eclipses,
but the latter are oftener seen at any particular place, because
they are visible over a larger area of territory on the earth.
19. In what direction do the horns of the moon turn ?
(See Astronomy , p. 127.)
20. Is the “ tidal wave ” a progressive movement of
the water ?
(See Astronomy , note, p. 148.)
The wind raises the particles of water, and gravity draws
them back again. They thus vibrate up and down, but do not
advance. The forward movement of the wave is an illusion.
The form of the wave progresses, but not the water of which
it is composed, any more than the thread of the screw which
we turn in our hand, or the undulations of a rope or carpet
which is shaken, or the stalks of grain which bend in billows
as the wind sweeps over them. Near the shore the oscillations
are shorter, and the waves, unbalanced by the deep water, are
forced forward till the lower part of each one is checked by the
friction on the sandy beach, the front becomes well-nigh ver¬
tical, and the upper part curls over and falls beyond.
21. Why does the sun 66 cross the line 99 in some years
on March 21, and, in others, on March 22 ?
(See Astronomy , p. 99.)
Leap-year also throws the dates back one day.
114
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
22. Do ive ever see the sun where it really is ?
(See Astronomy , p. 114.)
Both refraction and aberration of light change the apparent
place of the sun.
23. i( A t Edinburgh, Scotland, there are times when
the sun rises at 3% o’clock A.M., and sets at 8% o’clock
E.M., and the twilight lasts the entire night,” When and
why is this ?
(See Astronomy , p. 116.)
The latitude of Edinburgh is 55° 57'. Any place north of
48° 33' will have twilight at midnight in midsummer; for 90°
— 23° 27' (the sun’s declination) — 18° (at which twilight ceases)
= 48° 33b The hours named in the problem are the times for
the rising and setting of the sun at Edinburgh at the summer
solstice.
24. Which is the longest day of the year ?
(See Astronomy , p. 99.)
The summer solstice points out the longest day of the year.
23, Ts the moon nearer to us when it is at the horizon,
or at the zenith ?
(See Astronomy , p. 124.)
The moon is nearer to us when it is at the zenith than
when it is at the horizon.
26, IIow many solar eclipses would happen each year
if the orbits of the sun and the moon were in the same
plane ?
(See Astronomy , p. 138.)
In that case a solar eclipse would occur every new moon.
27, Is there any heat in moonlight ?
(See Astronomy , p. 125.)
28, Can we see the moon during a total eclipse ?
(See Astronomy , p. 146.)
29, Which of the planets are repeating a portion of the
earth’s history ?
Spectrum Analysis renders it possible, perhaps probable,
that Jupiter and Saturn, and, may be, Uranus and Neptune,
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
115
have not yet attained that degree of density which must neces¬
sarily precede the formation of a solid surface. They are,
therefore, now in a geologic age similar to that in which the
earth existed before its crust had become solidified. (See Sehel-
len’s Spectrum Analysis, p. 337.)
30. JEIotv many times does the moon turn on her axis
each year ?
(See Astronomy , p. 123.)
The moon turns on her axis once each month.
31. Can you explaivi the different signs used in the
almanac ?
(See “Astronomical Signs” in the Dictionary.)
32. Shotv how the moon is a prophecy of the earth’s
future.
The moon is a worn-out globe, and presents the same ap¬
pearance that the earth will probably offer ages hence.
33. Does the sun really rise and set ?
(See Astronomy , pp. 14, 87.)
No. This is only an optical illusion, being an illustration of
our tendency to transfer motion.
34. Are the bright portions of the moon mountains or
plains ?
The lofty portions, or mountains, of the moon reflect the
light to the earth most strongly, and hence appear the bright¬
est. The deep valleys, lying in shadow, look dark.
35. Which of the heavenly bodies are self-luminous ?
(See above, Question 29; also Astronomy , note, p. 163.)
Jupiter and Saturn probably emit light, at least from the
brighter spots of their surface. Read Newcomb’s Astronomy, p.
342.
36. Why is not a solar eclipse visible over the whole
earth ?
(See Astronomy , p. 140.)
37. What is meant by the “mean distance” of a
planet ?
The “mean distance” is the average distance.
116
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
38. What keeps the earth in motion around the sun?
(See Astronomy , p. 22.)
According to the First Law of Motion, “ Every body con¬
tinues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line, except in so far as it may be compelled by impressed
forces to change that state.”
39. Do ive ever see the sun after it sets ?
(See Astronomy , p. 114.)
The refraction of the atmosphere tends to raise all objects
toward the zenith, and, at the horizon, this is no less than 35',
or 3' more than the mean diameter of the sun (32').
40. When does the earth move the most rapidly in its
orbit ?
(See Astronomy , p. 18.)
The earth moves most rapidly in perihelion.
41. Have tve conclusive evidence that any planet is in¬
habited ?
(See Astronomy , p. 61; also note, p. 297.)
May it not be that the same lavish hand that scatters flow¬
ers and seeds in such profusion (not one in a thousand coming
to the perfection and end of its being), sows space with worlds,
a few only reaching the full fruition of life ?
42. lVhen is twilight the longest? The shortest? Why?
(See Astronomy , p. 116.)
Twilight is usually reckoned to last until the sun’s depres¬
sion below the horizon amounts to 18°; this, however, varies ;
in the tropics a depression of 16° or 17° is sufficient to put an
end to the phenomenon, but in England a depression of 17° to
21° is required. The duration of twilight differs in different
latitudes ; it varies also in the same latitude at different sea¬
sons of the year, and depends, in some measure, on the meteoro¬
logical condition of the atmosphere. Strictly speaking, in the
latitude of Greenwich there is no true night from May 22 to
July 21, but constant twilight from sunset to sunrise. Twilight
reaches its minimum three weeks before the vernal equinox,
and three weeks after the autumnal equinox, when its duration
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
117
is 1 hr. 50 min. At midwinter it is longer by about seven¬
teen minutes; but the augmentation is frequently not percepti¬
ble, owing to the greater prevalence of clouds and haze at
that season of the year, which intercept the light, and hinder
it from reaching the earth. The duration is least at the equa¬
tor (1 hr. 12 min.), and increases as we approach the poles ;
for at the former there are two twilights every twenty-four
hours, but at the latter only two in a year, each lasting about
fifty days. At the north pole the sun is below the horizon for
six months, but from January 29 to the vernal equinox, and
from the autumnal equinox to November 12, the sun is less
than 18° below the horizon; so that there is twilight during
the whole of these intervals, and thus the length of the actual
night is reduced to 21 months. The length of the day in these
regions is about six months, during the whole of which time
the sun is constantly above the horizon. The general rule is,
that to the inhabitants of an oblique sphere the twilight is longer in
proportion as the place is nearer the elevated pole, and the sun is
farther from the equator on the side of the elevated pole. — Cham¬
bers' Astronomy.
When the sun rises or sets most obliquely to the horizon,
then the least time is required to pass through the necessary
18°, and, of course, the length of twilight is the least. When
the sun rises or sets least obliquely, the most time is required
to pass through 18°, and the length of twilight is greatest. If
the sun’s path is perpendicular to the horizon, the sun will
pass over the 18° in 1 hr. 12 min.; for 15°= 1 hr.; and hence
18°= 1 T \ hr.
4.3. If hat is a moon ?
A moon is a secondary body, or satellite, revolving about a
primary body, or planet.
44. To a person in the south temperate zone , where
ivould the sun be at noon ?
On the meridian north of the observer.
45. Is it correct to say that the vnoonrevolves about the
earth, when we hnow that, according to the law of Thys-
118
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
ics, they must both revolve about their common center of
gravity ?
(See Astronomy , note, p. 200.)
The earth is not stationary as regards the moon, for both
it and our satellite revolve together about their common center
of gravity. Again, it is not the earth alone which revolves
about the sun in the elliptical orbit, but this common center of
gravity. The sun, also, is not stationary, but it and the planets
revolve about the common center of gravity of the whole
system.
46. During a transit of Venus, do we see the body of
the planet itself on the face of the sun ?
(See Astronomy, p. 277.)
During a transit, Yenus appears as “ a perfectly round black
spot on the disk of the sun.” The planet turns its unillumined
side toward us, and is, strictly speaking, invisible.
47, How many real motions has the sun ? Ilow many
apparent ones ?
It has two real fnotions: one around its axis, and one with
the solar system around the Pleiades. It has three apparent
motions : one along the ecliptic,—its yearly motion ; one through
the heavens,—its daily motion ; and one north and south.
4S, How many real motions has the earth ?
Three. One on its axis ; one around the sun ; and a third,—
its “wabbling motion,” which causes Precession.
49, Can an inferior planet have an elongation of 90° ?
No. Yenus recedes only 48° from the sun.
HO, Hoiv do we lmow the intensity of the sun’s light on
the surface of any of the planets ?
The intensity of the heat and light varies inversely as the
square of the distance.
HI, IFhy is the Tropic of Cancer placed where it is ?
Because it is the farthest place north where the sun is ever
seen directly overhead.
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY. . 119
52. What planets would float in water ?
According to Chambers’ Astronomy, the density of Saturn
is .68 that of water; Uranus, .99 ; Neptune, .96. According to
Newcomb, Saturn’s density is .75.
53. How must the moons of Jupiter appear during
their transit across the disk of that planet ?
The satellites appear on the disk of their primary as round
luminous spots, preceded or followed by their shadows, which
show as round black or blackish spots.— Chambers.
54. “ The shadow of the satellite precedes the satellite
itself when Jupiter is passing from conjunction to oppo¬
sition, hut follows it between opposition and conjunc¬
tion.” Explain.
When actually in conjunction, the shadow is in a right line
with the satellite, and the two may be superposed.
55. What facts point to the conclusion that Mars may,
perhaps , have passed his planetary prime ?
The proportion of land and water, and the appearance of
the seas, all point to a conclusion somewhat similar to the one
stated in the following quotation :
“Mars’ orbit being outside the earth’s, ho was probably
formed earlier. The mass of Mars is not much more than £
the earth’s, and the surface about | ; if he possessed the same
degree of heat as the earth, he would have only £ the amount
to radiate, and the supply would not last so long. Though
having only i the surface of the earth, he would still cool off 3
times as rapidly as the earth. Mars must, therefore, be at
least three times as far on the way toward planetary decrepi¬
tude and death as our earth.”— Proctor's Poetry of Astronomy.
50. 7Vhy may we conceive that Saturn and Jupiter are
yet in their planetary youth ?
(See Astronomy , note, p. 163.)
Vast planets, like Saturn and Jupiter, must have required
for cooling a far longer time than the earth, and thus the va¬
rious stages of development would occupy a much greater
120
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
length of time. (Read Proctor’s “When the Sea was Young,”
in Poetry of Science.)
57. Show how f if the Nebular Hypothesis be accepted ,
the fashioning of a planet must require an enormous
length of time .
(See Astronomy , p. 255.)
The experiments of Bischof upon basalt show that the earth
would require 350 millions of years to cool down from 2,000°
C to 200° C. This enormous period would represent only one
stage in the process of the earth’s development. (Read Win-
chell’s World Life.)
58. Ho we know the cause of gravitation ?
(See Astronomy , note, p. 23.)
233 — 1. In what constellation is Job’s Coffin? The
Letter Y? The Scalene Triangle? The Hipper? The
Kids? The Triangles?
Job’s Coffin is in Delphinus; the Letter Y, in Aquarius;
the Scalene Triangle, in Aries; -the Big Dipper, in Ursa Major ;
the Kids, in Auriga; and the Triangles, between Almach and
Arietis.
2. Name some facts in the solar system for which the
Nebular Hypothesis fails to account.
It is very difficult to explain, on the basis of the Nebular
Hypothesis, why the axes of certain of the planets are so
greatly inclined, and, especially, why the velocity of the rota¬
tion of the inner moon of Mars should so far exceed that of
Mars itself.
3. Which is probably hotter , a yelloiv or a red star ?
(See Astronomy, note, p. 241.)
When we heat a piece of iron, it first becomes red-hot,
then, as the temperature rises, other colors appear, until,
finally, it becomes dazzling white. (See Physics, p. 183.)
4. Are any of the stars likely to collide with each other?
Nothing strikes the astronomer more forcibly than the
thought of the desolateness of space. A vast gulf, more than
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
121
twenty-five trillions of miles in width, separates Neptune from
the nearest fixed star. It has been estimated that the average
distance between two of the sixty millions of fixed stars visible
to our largest telescopes, is about nine millions of millions of
miles. With this amount of “elbow-room,” a collision between
any two such remote neighbors would be almost impossible.
Yet, Sir Wm. Thomson remarks: “It is as sure that collisions
must occur between great masses moving through space, unless
guided in their paths, as it is that ships, steered without intelli¬
gence, could not cross and recross the Atlantic for thousands of
years with immunity from collisions.”
5 .
one ?
Is the real day longer or shorter than the apparent
(See Astronomy , p. 264.)
6. Do ive ever' see the stars ?
(See Astronomy , p. 203.)
7. What fixed star is nearest the earth ?
(See Astronomy , pp. 204, 241.)
8. How often is Polaris on the meridian of a place?
As Polaris revolves about the true pole in a circle, the
radius of which is nearly 1|°, it follows that in every twenty-
four hours it is once on the meridian below the pole, and, also,
once above it. The diameter of this circle is the length of
Orion’s Belt, the stars at the right and the left of the central
one representing the distance the polar star goes to the right
and left of the pole.
<). How do tve know that the stars are suns ?
(See Astronomy , pp. 205, 261.)
Spectrum analysis proves this to be the fact.
10. Can a watch keep apparent time?
(See Astrorwmy , p. 265.)
11. How could a child be eight years old before a re¬
turn of its birthday?
An infant born on Feb. 29, 1796, did not have a birthday
proper until Feb. 29, 1804, since the year 1800, not being
122
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
divisible by 400, was not a leap-year. Many other such dates
may be named.
12. When will a watch and a sun-dial agree ?
(See Astronomy , p. 265.)
13. What star will be the Pole Star 'next after Polaris ?
(See Astronomy , p. 217.)
14. Why is the birthday of Washington celebrated on
Feb. 22, when he was born Feb. 11, 1732 (O. S.) ?
(See Astronomy , note, p. 312.)
15. Poes the tide have any effect on the length of the
day ?
(See Astronomy , notes, pp. 89, 303.)
16. Will the Big Pipper always look as it does now ?
(See Astronomy , note, p. 217.)
The following figure, taken from Proctor’s Easy Star Les¬
sons, represents the location of the seven stars comprising the
Big Dipper, as they will be seen 100,000 years hence :
< 1 *
17. How
every year ?
many times does the earth turn on its axis
(See Astronomy , p. 264.)
18. Poes the spectroscope tell us any thing concerning
the constitution of the moon, or any of the planets ?
These bodies shine, in general, by reflected light; therefore,
the light examined comes from the sun. By comparing this re¬
flected light with solar light, the change produced by the planet’s
atmosphere may be detected. The lunar spectrum exactly
accords with the solar spectrum. The spectra of Venus, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn contain absorption lines indicating aqueous
vapor. Read Schellen’s Spectrum Analysis, p. 333.
10. When the United States bought Alaska from Bus-
sia, the calendar » used there was found to be one day ahead
of our reckoning. Why ivas this?
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
123
One going around the world westward will lose a day in
his reckoning ; one going eastward will gain a day. The Alaska
calendar was established by those who came from the West to
this continent, and their Tuesday corresponded to our Monday.
20. Why do the dates of the solstices and equinoxes
vary a day in different years ?
(See Astronomy , p. 99 )
Leap-year advances the dates one day.
21. Why are not forenoon and afternoon of the same
day, as given in the almanac, of equal length ?
(See Astronomy , p. 265.)
Apparent noon marks the middle of the day; but mean
noon may be either before or after the apparent noon; i.e.,
the time when the real sun is on the meridian.
22. In what part of the heavens (in our latitude) do
the stars apparently move from ivest to east?
The northern circumpolar constellations revolve about the
North Pole, and, during a part of their paths, they apparently
move from west to east.
23. What year was only nine months and six days
long ?
(See Astronomy , note, p. 312.)
24. What day will be the last day of the nineteenth
century ?
December 31, 1900.
25. If one should watch the sky, on a winter’s evening,
from 6 P.M. to 0 A.M., what portion of the celestial
sphere would he be able to see ?
All that is ever seen in his latitude.
20. How do we knoiv that the moon has little, if any,
atmosphere ?
Because when the moon occults a star, there is no refrac¬
tion of the star’s true place.
124
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
27 • In Greenland , at what part of the year will the
midnight sun be seen due 'north?
At all places whose latitude is 66° 30' N., the sun will be
on the northern horizon at midnight of the summer solstice.
At all places north of the Arctic Circle the sun will remain
above the horizon, even at midnight, for a certain portion of
the summer, the number of days increasing with the latitude.
Read Ball’s Elements of Astronomy, p. 142.
28, Can you give any other proof of the rotundity of
the earth, besides that named in the tevct (p. 85)?
(See Astronomy , note, p. 299.)
A sphere is the only body that always presents to us the
form of a circle, no matter in what direction we view it. At
sea, the circular form of the horizon is even more evident than
on land.
29, Point out the error in the following passage from
Byron’s 66 Darkness,” where the poet, in describing the
effect of the sun’s destruction, says:
“ I had a dream, . . .
. . . which was not all a dream;
The bright sun was extinguished, and the stars
Did wander darkling in the external space
Dayless and pathless.”
The fixed stars would be unaffected by the extinction of the
sun’s light.
30, Explain the remark of the First Carrier in Scene
I,, Act II,, King Henry IV,: “An’t be not four by the day,
I’ll be hanged: Charles’ wain is over the new chimney,”
(See Astrov&my , note, p. 311.)
Since the two great stars which mark the summit and the
foot of the Cross have nearly the same right ascension, it fol¬
lows that the constellation is almost perpendicular at the mo¬
ment when it passes the meridian. This circumstance is known
to every nation that lives beyond the tropics or in the Southern
Hemisphere. It has been observed at what hour of the night,
in different seasons, the Cross of the south is erect or inclined.
It is a time-piece that advances very regularly near four min-
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
125
utes a day, and no other group of stars exhibits to the naked
eye an observation of time so easily made. How often have
we heard our guides exclaim in the savannas of Venezuela, or
in the desert extending from Lima to Truxillo, “ Midnight is
past, the Cross begins to bend ! ” How often those words re¬
minded us of that affecting scene, where Paul and Virginia,
seated near the sources of the river of Lataniers, conversed
together for the last time, and where the old man, at the sight
of the Southern Cross, warns them that it is time to separate.
—Humboldt.
31. Why does not the earth move with equal velocity in
all parts of its orbit ?
Because at perihelion it is nearer the sun than when in
aphelion, and hence the attraction is stronger.
32. How many Jovian-years old are you ?
A Jovian-year equals 11.86 earth-years.
33. Why is the shy blue ?
The blue light of the firmament is light reflected by solid
particles—generally of aqueous vapor—in the air. It is notice¬
able that early in the morning and late at night, when the
sun’s rays fall obliquely upon the atmosphere, they are polar¬
ized by reflection. The reflected light is blue; the transmitted
light of the sky is orange or red. (Read Tyndall’s Light , p.
152.)
34. At what season of the year does Christmas occur in
Australia ?
(See Astronomy, Art. vii., p. 98.)
35. What causes the apparent movement of the sun
north and south ?
(See Astronomy, p. 95.)
It is caused by the fact that the axis of the earth is inclined
to the plane of the ecliptic, while the earth is revolving about
the sun.
36. On what part of the earth is the twilight the long¬
est? The shortest?
(See Astronomy, p. 110; Manual, p. 110.)
126
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
“ Where the air is unusually full of condensed vapor, as
occurs in polar regions, the twilight is greatly lengthened;
where the air is unusually dry, as occurs in the tropics, twilight
is said sometimes to be shortened to fifteen minutes.”
37 • Name the causes which make our summer longer
than winter.
(See Astronomy, p. 102.)
38. Why is not total darkness produced when a dense
cloud passes between us and the sun ?
(See Astronomy, p. 117.)
39. Why does the time of the tide vary each day ?
(See Astronomy, p. 148.)
40. Why is an annular longer than a total eclipse ?
(See Astronomy, p. 140.)
41. Why is it colder in winter than in summer ?
(See Astronomy, pp. 97, 98.)
42. Do the solar spots affect our weather ?
(See Astronomy, p. 48.)
43. Can the moon be eclipsed in the day-time ?
(See Astronomy, p. 114.)
44. Why are the sidereal days of uniform length ?
Because of the almost absolute uniformity of the earth’s
rotation.
45. Why are not the solar days of uniform length ?
(See Astronomy, p. 266.)
46. What do the moon’s phases prove ?
The moon’s phases prove that she is spherical, and shines
by the reflected light of the sun.
47• JVhy do the sun and moon appear flattened when
near the horizon ?
(See Astronomy, p. 115.)
48. How many stars can we see with the naked eye ?
No one sees more than 6,000, and few more than 4,000 stars.
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
127
49. Is there ever an annular eclipse of the moon ?
(See Astronomy, p. 146.)
50. 66 While the sun rises and sets 365 times , a star
rises and sets 366 times." Explain.
(See Astronomy, p. 264.)
51. How many moons are there in the solar system ?
Twenty have been discovered.
52. What causes the twinkling of the stars ?
(See Astronomy, p. 207.)
Some attribute the twinkling of the stars to the inequality
of refraction due to the constant changes in the density of the
air, produced by the constant changes in the heat.
53. Name some of the uses of the stars.
(See Astronomy, pp. 212, 285.)
54. Describe the methods by which we determine the
distance of the sun from the earth.
(See Astronomy, p. 275.)
55. Why do not the signs and the constellations of the
Zodiac agree ?
(See Astronomy, pp. 106, 211.)
56. When we look at the North Star, how long since the
light that enters our eye has left that body ?
(See Astronomy, p. 218.)
57'• In what direction does a comet’s tail generally
point ?
(See Astronomy, note, p. 306.)
58. What is the cause of shooting stars ?
(See Astronomy, p 182.)
59. Why does the crescent moon appear larger than
the dark body of the moon ?
(See Astronomy, p. 123.)
60. What is the real path of the moon ?
(See Astronomy, pp. 123, 301.)
61. What ivould be the result if the axis of the earth
ivere parallel to the plane of its orbit ?
(See Astronomy, Article xx., p. 103.)
128
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
62.
year ?
Do we see the same star's at different seasons of the
(See Astronomy, pp. 92, 93.)
63. Why do we not perceive the earth’s motion in
space ?
Because all the objects around us partake of its motion.
64. Did the earth ever shine as a star? Does it now
shine as a planet ?
The earth, doubtless, shone as a star while it was yet a
glowing mass; now, it reflects the sun’s light, like the other
planets.
65. What is the nebular hypothesis ?
(See Astronomy, p. 255.)
66. What is the cause of the solar spots ?
(See Astronomy, p. 54.)
67. Would it make the new moon “ drier ” or “ wetter ”
if the moon’s path ran north of, instead of on, the ecliptic
at the time of new moon ?
The moon’s latitude varies from 5° N. to 5° S. (exactly 5°
8' 47" 9). If the new moon were 5° K, this would increase
the angle of 72|° (note, p. 30) to 771°, and thus make the line
joining the moon’s cusps more nearly parallel to the horizon.
It may be easily seen that whenever the plane of the lunar
orbit lies so as to carry the moon past conjunction above the
sun, then the crescent is more nearly horizontal; when beloiv,
then it is more nearly vertical.
68. Under what conditions are we accustomed to trans¬
fer motion ?
(See Astronomy, pp. 85, 86.)
69. Why do not the planets twinkle ?
(See Astronomy, note, p. 207.)
70. Why is the horizon a circle ?
(See Manual, p. 124, Question 28.)
71. What causes are gradually increasing the length of
the day ?
(See Astronomy , notes, pp. 89, 303.)
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
129
72.
year?
What distance floes the moon gain in her orbit each
(See Astronomy , notes, pp. 89, 302.)
73. State the general argument which renders it prob¬
able that other worlds are inhabited.
(See Astronomy , p. 63; also, note, p. 297.)
74. Illustrate the uniformity of Nature. What thought
does this suggest ?
(See Astronomy , p. 55; also, note, p. 297.)
So far as we can judge, the laws of Nature, the properties
of matter, etc., are uniform throughout the universe, and re¬
veal the workmanship of one Creator.
73. At what rate are we traveling through space?
Hoiv is this determined ?
The mean orbital velocity of the earth is 18.4 miles per
second. Knowing the circumference of its yearly path, the rate
of motion is easily calculated.
76. Why does the length of a degree of latitude increase
in going from the equator toward either pole of the earth ?
Because the form of the earth is not perfectly spherical, but
is flattened at the poles and bulged at the equator.
LENGTH OF DEGREE OF LATITUDE.
COUNTRY.
LATITUDE.
LENGTH OF
DEGREE.
Feet.
66°
20'
10" N.
365744
66
19
37
367086
58
17
37
365368
56
3
55 - 5
365291
54
58
26
365420
54
8
137
365087
52
32
166
365300
Tdn cf\ tin rl .
52
35
45
364971
"Fin &\ an c \.
52
2
194
364951
”RVan r»,n . .
46
52
2
364872
364572
364262
363786
363044
362956
Frn.noo .
44
51
25
"Romo , ,,.
42
59
0
A morion.
39
12
0
Tririiq, ..
16
8
215
Tndia. . .
12
32
208
1
31
0"4 S.
36ob2o
33
18
30
364^13
364060
Cape of G-ood Hope.
35
43
20
130
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
77 • How can you detect the yearly motion of the sun
among the stars ?
(See Astronomy , first note, p. 94.)
78. Have you actually traced the movement of any one
of the planets, so as to understand its peculiar and irregu¬
lar wandering among the stars ?
Pupils should be encouraged to watch the various move¬
ments of the heavenly bodies.—Read a thoughtful and sug¬
gestive article upon Astronomy in High Schools, in Popular
Science Monthly, Yol. xx., p. 300.
79. Hoiv do you explain the varied aspect of the heav¬
ens in the different seasons of the year ?
(See Astronomy , p. 92.)
80. How does the spinning of a top illustrate the sub¬
ject of “precession?
(See Astronomy , p. 109.)
81. Why do solar eclipses come on from the west and
cross to the east, while lunar eclipses come on from the east
and cross to the west ?
The moon is moving from west to east around the earth.
In a solar eclipse, her shadow first strikes the western edge of
the sun ; in a lunar eclipse, the eastern edge of the moon first
strikes the shadow of the earth.
The monthly motion of the moon from west to east should
be carefully distinguished from the daily motion caused by the
earth’s rotation.
82. Newcomb, in his Astronomy, says that, “ If, ivhen
the moon is near the meridian, an observer could in a mo¬
ment jump from New York to Liverpool, keepitig his eye
fixed upon that body, he could see her apparently jump in
the opposite direction about the same distance.” Explain.
This is an illustration of transferred motion.
83. When, and by whom, was the basis of the calendar
we now use fully established ?
The Roman calendar had become involved in confusion,
IN DESCRIPTIVE ASTR 0N03IY.
131
when Julius Caesar, who possessed no little astronomical knowl¬
edge, called to his assistance a G-reek astronomer named Sosig¬
enes, and adjusted the civil year to the astronomical year.
By intercalating the extra day of leap year, he introduced
what is known as the Julian Calendar, which is still in use.
The Persian Calendar, invented in the eleventh century as
a correction of the Julian, is remarkable for its accuracy; it
consists in making every fourth year bissextile seven times in
succession, and making the change for the eighth time in the
fifth year instead of the fourth. This is equivalent to reckon¬
ing the tropical year as 365g 8 3 days, which exceeds the period
determined by astronomers only by 0.0001823 of a day, or
only f of a second, so that it would require a great number of
centuries to displace sensibly the commencement of the civil
year.
The Gregorian Calendar usually employed is somewhat less
exact, but it is more easily reduced to days, years, and centu¬
ries, which is one of the most important objects of a calendar.
It consists in employing a bissextile year every fourth year,
suppressing three bissextiles in three centuries, and replacing
one in the fourth. Thus in every 400 years there are reckoned
only 97 leap years, making the length of the year 365 ¥ y^,
which exceeds the tropical year by 0.0002581 of a day, or very
nearly one second.
If, following the analogy of the Gregorian Calendar, our
successors shall suppress a bissextile every 4,000 years, so as to
make 969 instead of 970 leap years in that interval, the length
of the year would become 365^^ days, or 365.2422500 days,
instead of 365.242219 days, as determined by observation.—
Haughton’s Astronomy.
84, How much is the Russian reckoning of time be¬
hind ours ?
The Russian reckoning is twelve days behind us.
85, Is there any gain in having the astronomical and
the calendar year agree ?
It is difficult to show what practical object is attained by
such coincidence. It is important that summer and winter,
132
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
seed-time and harvest, shall occur at the same time of the year
through several successive generations; but it is not of the
slightest importance that they should occur now at the same
time that they did 5,000 years ago.—Read Newcomb’s As¬
tronomy, p. 50.
86. What religious festival is fixed each year by the
motion of the moon ?
Easter occurs on the Sunday after the first full moon fol¬
lowing the spring equinox.—Read article on Easter, in Apple-
tons’ Cyclopedia.
87. Why can we, at different times, see both poles of
the planet Mars ?
Because the axis of the planet is so much inclined to the
plane of the ecliptic.
88. What famous astronomical discovery ivas made
on the first day of this century ?
(See Astronomy , p. 155.)
89. Do the stars rise and set at the poles ?
(See Astronomy , p. 102.)
“At one of the poles of the earth, the axis of the earth’s
rotation would be vertical, and pass through the zenith, and
consequently all the celestial objects would appear to travel in
horizontal circles, parallel to the horizon, traversing these hori¬
zontal circles once in 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds.”
90. Name and locate the stars of the first magnitude
which are seen in our shy.
The twenty brightest stars in the heavens, or first magni¬
tude stars, are as follows: they are given in the order of
brightness.—L ockyer.
Sirius,
in the constellation
Canis Major.
Canopus,
a
Argo.
Alpha,
a
Centaur.
Arcturus,
a
Bootes.
Rigel,
<<
Orion.
Capella,
n
Auriga.
IlX DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
133
Vega, in
the constellation
Lyra.
Procyon,
< <
Canis Minor.
Betelgeuse,
i <
Orion.
Achernar,
li
Eridanus.
Aldebaran,
tt
Taurus.
Beta Centauri,
ft
Centaur.
Alpha Crucis,
il
Crux.
Antares,
a
Scorpio.
Altair,
ft
Aquila.
Spica,
ft
Virgo.
Fomalhaut,
ft
Piscis Australis.
Beta Crucis,
If
Crux.
Pollux,
if
Gemini.
Regulus,
< t
Leo.
91. Name three bright stars which lie near the first
meridian.
a Andromedae ; y Pegasi; and /3 Cassiopeise.
92. What events were transpiring in our history a
Saturnian century ago ?
A Saturnian-year equals 29.45 Earth-years; a “ Saturnian
century ago ” was, therefore, 2,945 years since, or about 1060
b.c. This was about the time of the rise of Tyre, the reign of
King David, etc.—Read Barnes’ General History, p. 79.
93. What is the sun’s declination at the winter solstice ?
At the autumnal equinox ?
(1.) 231° S. (2.) 0.
94. Will the width of the terrestrial zones always re¬
main exactly as flow ?
(See Astronomy , p. 111.)
95. Is it always noon at 12 o’clock?
(See Manual, p. 123, Question 21.)
90. When the sun’s declination is 23V Nin what sign
is he then located, and what is his H. A. ?
(See Astronomy, p. 31.)
This is the time of the summer solstice, and the sun is in
Cancer, the fourth sign.
134
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
97 . What is the apparent diameter of the sun ?
The mean apparent diameter of the sun is 32'.
98. How can a sailor find his latitude and longitude at
sea ?
(See Astronomy , p. 280.)
99. How many miles on the solar disk represent a sec¬
ond of apparent diameter ?
1" on the solar disk equals 450.3 miles.— Young. “ The
spider-line used in a large telescope will cover a portion of the
sun’s surface \ of a second in breadth, or hide a strip over 100
miles wide.”
100. Ativhat latitude will there be twilight during the
entire midsummer night ?
(See Manual , p. 114, Question 23.)
When the sun crosses the meridian at midnight, its distance
below the horizon is greater than when the sun is at any other
part of its diurnal path. If, therefore, the depression of the
sun below the horizon at midnight be not greater than 18°, the
sun will, during the entire night, be within 18° of the horizon,
and hence the twilight will be continuous.—It will be noticed in
solving all the problems connected with twilight (as, for ex¬
ample, Question 23, p. 114, and Question 27, p. 124), that the
result will be slightly changed if the exact amount of the
obliquity of the ecliptic (23° 27' 15") be used, instead of the
ordinary statement, 23|°.
ADDED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.
•
1. Hid Tycho Brahe have a telescope?
No. Galileo invented the telescope.
2. Suppose one should watch the sky , on a ivinter’s
evening, from 6* B.M. to 6 A.M., what portion of the celes¬
tial sphere would he see ?
All that is ever seen in his latitude.
3. Hotv do we find what proportion of the sun’s heat
reaches the earth ?
IX DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY.
135
Calculate the surface of a sphere whose radius is the dis¬
tance of the earth from the sun, and then estimate what pro¬
portion of that area the earth occupies.
4 . How do ive know the heat of the sun’s rays at any
planet ?
The intensity of the heat and light varies inversely as the
square of the distance.
5. Can you give any other proof than that named in
the book of the rotundity of the earth ?
Aeronauts, when at a proper height, can distinctly see the
curving form of the earth’s surface.
6. In what ivay is the force which acts on a spinning-
top opposite to that which produces precession ?
Gravity, acting on the top, tends to draw C P (Fig. 40)
from the perpendicular. The attraction of the sun, acting on
the bulging mass of the earth’s equator, tends to draw C P
toward the perpendicular.
7 . Why is the Tropic of Cancer so called ?
When named, the sun was probably in that constellation at
the time of the summer solstice. Now, owing to the preces¬
sion of the equinoxes, the sun is in the constellation Gemini,
and to be exact, it should be called the Tropic of Gemini. It
is still, however, the sign Cancer, as before. The same reason¬
ing applies to the Tropic of Capricorn, which is now in the
constellation Sagittarius.
8. In Greenland , at what part of the year will the
midnight sun be seen due north ?
At the summer solstice.
9. When is the moon seen high in the eastern sky in the
afternoon 9 long before the sun sets ?
During the second quarter before it comes into opposition.
10. Why is the Ecliptic so called ?
Because eclipses always occur in or near it.
136
EXPLAINING MIRRORS AND LENSES.
EXPLAINING MIRRORS AND LENSES.
The author has met with the best success in explaining mir¬
rors and lenses to his pupils by using the following method :
A Concave Mirror .— Holding up before his eye the fore¬
finger of each hand, he represents to the pupil how the rays
of light enter his eye converging ; how he then sees the object
on diverging rays: thus the visual angle being increased, the
apparent size of the object is correspondingly increased. By
crossing his two forefingers before his eye he represents the
focus, and shows how diverging rays then enter the eye; the
object is seen on converging rays, the visual angle is decreased,
and the apparent size of the object correspondingly decreased.
A Convex Mirror .— Using the fingers in the same way, he
illustrates how diverging rays enter the eye, the object is seen
on converging rays, the visual angle is diminished, and the ap¬
parent size of the object correspondingly diminished. The rays
of light are not brought to a focus, hence the second effect of a
concave mirror can not be seen.
The same illustration can be used in explaining lenses, re¬
membering that the effect of a convex lens is like that of a
concave mirror, and of a concave lens that of a convex mirror.
At the close of the explanation and illustration with the
fingers, the following formula is put on the blackboard, and the
pupil applies it to each class of mirrors and lenses:
Converging (diverging) rays enter the eye, the object is
SEEN ON DIVERGING (converging) RAYS ; HENCE THE VISUAL ANGLE
is increased (decreased), and the image is larger (smaller)
THAN LIFE.
ASTRONOMY WITH AN OPERA-GLASS.
In schools where there is no telescope, teachers may find
valuable suggestions for class observations in the articles en¬
titled “Astronomy with an Opera-Glass,” by Garrett P. Serviss,
in the Popular Science Monthly, April, June, August, and No¬
vember, 1887, and February, 1888.
TABLE OF THE MINOR PLANETS.
137
TABLE OF THE MINOR PLANETS,*
including all that have been discovered to date (Oct., 1887).
NO.
NAME.
DATE
OF DISCOVERY.
DISCOVERER.
1
Ceres .
1801,
January
1
Piazzi.
2
Pallas.
1802,
March
28
Olbers.
3
Juno.
1804,
Sept.
1
Harding.
4
Vesta.
1807,
March
29
Olbers.
5
Astrcea.
1845,
Dec.
8
Hencke.
6
Hebe.
1847,
July
1
Hencke.
7
Iris.
1847,
August
13
Hind.
8
Flora.
1847,
October
18
Hind.
9
Metis..
1848,
April
25
Graham.
10
Hygieia.
1849,
April
12
Gasparis.
11
Parthenope.
1850,
May
11
Luther.
12
Victoria.
1850,
Sept.
13
Hind.
13
Egeria.
1850,
Nov.
2
Gasparis.
14
Irene.
1851,
May
19
Hind.
15
Eunomia..
1851,
July
29
Gasparis.
16
Psyche.
1852,
March
17
Gasparis.
17
Thetis.
1852,
April
17
Luther.
18
Melpomene.
1852,
June
24
Hind.
19
Fortuna.
1852,
August
22
Hind.
20
Massalia.
1852,
Sept.
19
Gasparis.
21
Lutetia.
1852,
Nov.
15
Goldschmidt.
22
Calliope.
1852,
Nov.
16
Hind.
23
Thalia.
1852,
Dec.
15
Hind.
24
Themis.
1853,
April
5
Gasparis.
25
Phocsea.
1853,
April
7
Chacornac.
26
Proserpina.
1853,
May
5
Luther.
27
Euterpe.
1853,
Nov.
8
Hind.
28
Bellona.
1854,
March
1
Luther.
29
Amphitrite.
1854,
March
1
Marth.
30
Urania.
1854,
July
22
Hind.
31
Euphrosyne.
1854,
Sept.
1
Ferguson.
32
Pomona.
1854,
October
26
Goldschmidt.
33
Polyhymnia.
1854,
October
28
Chacornac.
34
Circe.
1855,
April
6
Chacornac.
35
Leucothea.
1855,
April
19
Luther.
36
Atalanta.
1855,
October
5
Goldschmidt.
37
Fides.
1855,
October
5
Luther.
38
Leda.
1856,
January
12
Chacornac.
39
Lsetitia.
1856,
February
8
Chacornac.
* The numerical order is that adopted by the authority of the Berlin
Ephemeria.
138
TABLE OF THE MINOR PLANETS,
NO.
NAME.
DATE
OF DISCOVERY.
DISCOVERER.
40
Harmonia.
1856,
March
31
Goldschmidt.
41
Daphne.
1856,
May
22
Goldschmidt.
42
Isis.
1856,
May
23
Pogson.
43
Ariadne.
1857,
April
15
Pogson.
44
Nysa.
1857,
May
27
Goldschmidt.
45
Eugenia.
1857,
June
27
Goldschmidt.
46
Hestia.
1857,
August
16
Pogson.
47
Aglaia.
1857,
Sept.
15
Euther.
48
Doris.
1857,
Sept.
19
Goldschmidt.
49
Pales.
1857,
Sept.
19
Goldschmidt.
50
Virginia.
1857,
October
4
Eerguson.
51
Nemausa.
1858,
January
22
Laurent.
52
Europa.
1858,
Eebruary
4
Goldschmidt.
53
Calypso.
1858,
April
4
Luther.
54
Alexandra.
1858,
Sept.
10
Goldschmidt.
55
Pandora.
1858,
Sept.
10
Searle.
56
Melete*..
1857,
Sept.
9
Goldschmidt.
57
Mnemosyne.
1859,
Sept.
22
Luther.
58
Concordia.
1860,
March
24
Luther.
59
Elpis.
1860,
Sept.
12
Chacornac.
60
Echo.
1860,
Sept.
15
Eerguson.
61
Danae.
1860,
Sept.
9
Goldschmidt.
62
Erato.
1860,
Sept.
14
Eorster & Lesser.
63
Ausonia.
1861,
Eeb.
10
Gasparis.
64
Angelina.
1861,
March
4
Tempel.
65
Cybele.
1861,
March
8
Tempel.
66
Maia.
1861,
April
9
Tuttle.
67
Asia.
1861,
April
17
Pogson.
68
Eeto.
1861,
April
29
Luther.
69
Hesperia.
1861,
April
29
Schiaparelli.
70
Panopea.
1861,
May
5
Goldschmidt.
71
Niobe.
1861,
August
13
Luther.
72
Eeronia.
1861,
May
29
Peters & Safford.
73
Clytie.
1862,
April
7
Tuttle.
74
Galatea.
1862,
August
29
Tempel.
75
Eurydice..
1862,
Sept.
22
Peters.
76
Ereia.
1862,
October
21
d’Arrest.
77
Erigga.
1862,
Nov.
12
Peters.
78
Diana.
1863,
March
15
Luther.
79
Eurynome.
1863,
Sept.
14
Watson.
80
Sappho.
1864,
May
2
Pogson.
81
Terpsichore.
1864,
Sept.
30
Tempel.
82
Alcmene.
1864,
Nov.
27
Luther.
* Goldschmidt at first believed it to be Daphne (41), but Schubert find¬
ing its period different, called it Pseudo-Daphne. It was not seen from 1857
to 1861, when Luther rediscovered it, and named it Melete.
TABLE OF THE MINOR PLANETS .
139
NO.
NAME.
DATE
OF DISCOVERY.
DISCOVERER.
83
Beatrix.
1865,
April
26
Gasparis.
84
Clio.
1865,
August
26
Luther.
85
Io.
1865,
Sept.
19
Peters.
86
Semele.
1866,
January
4
Tietjen.
87
Sylvia.
1866,
May
16
Pogson.
88
Thisbe.
1866,
June
15
Peters.
89
Julia.
1866,
August
6
Stephan.
90
Antiope.
1866,
October
11
Luther.
91
JEgina.
1866,
Nov.
4
Stephan.
92
Undina....
1867,
July
7
Peters.
93
Minerva.
1867,
August
24
Watson.
94
Aurora.
1867,
Sept.
6
Watson.
95
Arethusa.
1867,
Nov.
23
Luther.
96
ASgle.
1868,
February
17
Coggia.
97
Clotho...
1868,
February
17
Tempel.
98
Ianthe.
1868,
April
18
Peters.
99
Dike.
1868,
May
28
Borelly.
100
Hecate.
1868,
July
11
Watson.
101
Helena.
1868,
August
15
Watson.
102
Miriam.
1868,
August
22
Peters.
103
Hera.
1868,
Sept.
7
Watson.
104
Clymene.
1868,
Sept.
13
W atson.
105
Artemis.
1868,
Sept.
16
Watson.
106
Dione.
1868,
October
10
Watson.
107
Camilla... .
1868,
Nov.
17
Pogson.
108
Hecuba.
1869,
April
2
Luther.
109
Felicitas.
1869,
October
9
Peters.
110
Bydia.
1870,
April
19
Borelly.
111
Ate.
1870,
August
14
Peters.
112
Ipbigenia.
1870,
Sept.
19
Peters.
113
Amalthea.
1871,
March
12
Luther.
114
Cassandra.
1871,
July
23
Peters.
115
Thyra.
1871,
August
6
Watson.
116
Sirona.
1871,
Sept.
8
Peters.
117
Lomia.
1871,
Sept.
12
Borelly.
118
Peitbo.
1872,
March
15
Luther.
119
Althaea.
1872,
April
3
Watson.
120
Lachesis.
1872,
April
10
Borelly.
121
Hermione.
1872,
May
12
Watson.
122
Gerda.
1872,
July
31
Peters.
123
Brunhilda.
1872,
July
31
Peters.
124
Alceste.
1872,
August
23
Peters.
125
Liberatrix.
1872,
Sept.
11
Prosper Henry.
126
Velleda.
1872,
Nov.
5
Paul Henry.
127
Johanna.
1872,
Nov.
5
Prosper Henry.
128
Nemesis.
1872,
Nov.
25
Watson.
129
Antigone.
1873,
February
5
Peters.
130
Electra,.
1873,
February
17
Peters.
140
TABLE OF THE MINOR PLANETS .
HO.
NAME.
DATE
OF DISCOVERY.
DISCOVERER.
131
Vala .
1873,
May
26
Peters.
132
.ZEthra.
1873,
June
13
Watson.
133
flyreriR .
1873,
August
Sept.
Peb.
16
Watson.
134
Sophrosyne.
1873,
27
Luther.
135
Hertha.
1874,
18
Peters.
136
Austria.
1874,
March
18
Palisa.
137
Meliboea.
1874,
April
21
Palisa.
138
Tolosa.
1874,
May
October
19
Perrotin.
139
.Tiifiwfl,.
1874,
10
Watson.
140
Si wa.
1874,
October
13
Palisa.
141
T/iimpn .
1875,
January
13
Paul Henry.
142
Polana.
1875,
January
28
Palisa.
143
A drin .
1875,
Peb.
23
Palisa.
144
Vibilia.
1875,
June
3
Peters.
145
A 6 finn n, .
1875,
June
3
Peters.
146
Till p,i nn, .
1875,
June
8
Borelly.
147
"Prnt.op'p.n pin, .
1875,
1875,
1875,
July
August
11
Schulhof.
148
(4n,llia.
7
Prosper Henry.
149
Medusa.
Sept.
21
Perrotin.
150
Nu wa .
1875,
October
18
Watson.
151
A bund anti a.
1875,
Nov.
1
Palisa.
152
A t.al a.
1875,
Nov.
2
Paul Henry.
153
Hilda.
1875,
Nov.
o
Palisa.
154
Berth a..
1875,
Nov.
4
Prosper Henry.
155
156
So ylla.
1875,
Nov.
8
Palisa.
Xa/ntirroe.
1875,
Nov.
22
Palisa.
157
158
159
160
Tleiariirn.
1875,
Dec.
1
Borelly.
Boron is.
1876,
January
4
Knorre.
ZRlrnilia,.
1876,
January
26
Paul Henry.
JTna.
1876,
February
20
Peters.
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
At,bon.
1876,
1876,
April
18
Watson.
Tia.nnontin .
April
21
Prosper Henry.
"Flnipfono .
1876,
April
26
Perrotin.
"Rva .
1876,
July
12
Paul Henry.
Tionolov .
1876,
August
August
9
Peters.
Fbodono .
1876,
15
Peters.
XJrda .
1876,
August
Sept.
Sept.
January
28
Peters.
Sibylla, .
1876,
28
Watson.
^o]in ...
1876,
28
Prosper Henry.
Marin, .
1877,
1877,
10
Perrotin.
Opb pi i a, .
January
13
Borelly.
"Ran ri a. .
1877,
February
5
Borelly.
Tno .
1877,
August
2
Borelly.
Phaedra .
1877,
Sept.
3
Watson.
And norm a.p.b R .
1877,
October
1
Watson.
Tdnnna .
1877,
October
14
Peters.
Tnrnfl,.
1877,
Nov.
5
Prosper Henry.
Bel i anna .
1877,
Nov.
6
Palisa.
m vtom n RRtra .
1877,
Nov.
12
Watson.
TABLE OF THE MINOR PLANETS.
141
NO.
NAME.
DATE
OF DISCOVERY.
DISCOVERER.
180
G-arumna.
1878,
January
29
Perrotin.
181
Eucharis.
1878,
February
2
Cottenot.
182
Elsa.
1878,
February
. 7
Palisa.
183
Istria.
1878,
February
8
Palisa.
184
Deiopeia.
1878,
February
28
Palisa.
185
Eunike...
1878,
March
1
Peters.
186
Celuta.
1878,
April
6
Prosper Henry.
187
Lamberta.
1878,
April
11
Coggia.
188
Menippe.
1878,
June
18
Peters.
189
Phthia.
1878,
Sept.
9
Pet era
19Q
Ismene.
1878,
Sept.
22
Peters.
191
Kolga.
1878,
Sept.
30
Peters.
192
Nansicaa.
1879,
February
17
Palisa.
193
Ambrosia.
1879,
February
28
Coggia.
194
Procne.
1879,
March
21
Peters.
195
Eurycleia.
1879,
April
22
Palisa.
196
Philomela.
1879,
May
17
Peters.
197
Arete.
1879,
May
21
Palisa.
198
Ampella.
1879,
June
13
Borelly.
199
Byblis.
1879,
July
9
Peters.
200
Dynamene..
1879,
July
27
Peters.
201
Penelope.
1879,
August
7
Palisa.
202
Chryseis.
1879,
Sept.
11
Peters.
203
Pompeia.
1879,
Sept.
25
Peters.
204
Callisto.
1879,
October
8
Palisa.
205
Martha.
1879,
October
13
Palisa.
206
Hersilia.
1879,
October
13
Peters.
207
Hedda.
1879,
October
17
Palisa.
208
Eacrymosa.
1879,
October
21
Palisa.
209
Dido.
1879,
October
22
Peters.
210
Isabella.
1879,
Nov.
12
Palisa.
211
Isolda.
1879,
Dec.
10
Palisa.
212
Medea..
1880,
February
6
Palisa.
213
Eiliaea.
1880,
February
16
Peters.
214
Aschera.
1880,
March
1
Palisa.
215
(Enone.
1880,
April
7
Knorre.
216
Cleopatra.
1880,
April
10
Palisa.
217
Eudora.
1880,
August
30
Coggia.
218
Bianca .
1880,
Sept.
4
Palisa.
219
Thusnelda.
1880,
Sept.
30
Palisa.
220
Stephania.
1881,
May
20
Palisa.
221
Eos.
1882,
January
18
Palisa.
222
Lucia.
1882,
February
9
Palisa.
223
Rosa..
1882,
March
9
Palisa.
224
Oceana.
1882,
March
30
Palisa.
225
Henrietta. ..
1882,
April
19
Palisa.
226
Weringia.
1882,
July
19
Palisa.
227
Philosophia.
1882,
August
12
Paul Henry.
228
Agathe...
1882,
August
19
Palisa.
142
TABLE OF THE MINOR PLANETS.
NO.
NAME.
DATE
OF DISCOVERY.
DISCOVERER.
229
Adelinda.
1882,
August
22
Palisa.
230
Athamantis.
1882,
Sept.
o
O
De Ball.
231
Vindobona.
1882,
Sept.
10
Palisa.
232
Russia.
1883,
January
31
Palisa.
233
Asterope.
1883,
May
11
Borelly.
234
Barbara.
1883,
August
13
Peters.
235
Caroline.
1883,
Nov.
29
Palisa.
236
Honoria.
1884,
April
26
Palisa.
237
Ccelestina.
1884,
June
27
Palisa.
238
Hypatia.
1884,
July
1
Knorre.
239
Adrastea.
1884,
August
18
Palisa.
240
Vanadis.
1884,
August
27
Borelly.
241
Germania.
1884,
Sept.
12
Luther.
242
Kriemhild.
1884,
Sept.
22
Palisa.
243
Ida......
1884,
Sept.
29
Palisa.
244
Sita.
1884,
October
14
Palisa.
245
Vera.
1885,
February
6
Pogson.
243
Asporina.
1885,
March
6
Borelly.
247
Eukrate.
1885,
March
14
Luther.
243
Eameia.
1885,
June
5
Palisa.
249
Use.
1885,
August
17
Peters.
250
Bettina.
1885,
Sept.
3
Palisa.
251
Sophia.
1885,
October
4
Palisa.
252
Clementina.
1885,
October
27
Perrotin.
253
Mathilda.
1885,
Nov.
12
Palisa.
254
Augusta.
1886,
March
31
Palisa.
255
Oppavia .
1886,
March
31
Palisa.
256
Walpurga..
1886,
April
3
Palisa.
257
Silesia.
1886,
April
5
Palisa.
258
Tyche.
1886,
May
4
Luther.
259
Altheia.
1886,
June
28
Peters.
260
Huberta.
1886,
October
3
Palisa.
261
Prymno.
1886,
October
31
Peters.
262
Valda.
1886,
Nov.
3
Palisa.
263
Dresda.
1886,
Nov.
3
Palisa.
264
Libussa.
1886,
Dec.
17
Peters.
265
Anna.
1887,
February
25
Palisa.
266
Aline.
1887,
May
17
Palisa.
267
Tirza.
1887,
May
27
Charlois.
268
1887,
June
9
Borelly.
269
.\.
1887,
Sept.
21
Palisa.
270
1887,
October
8
Peters.
271
1887,
October
16
Knorre.
From this Table, it will be observed that, next to Palisa, of Vienna,
Austria* the one investigator who has discovered the largest number of
asteroids is our own Dr. Peters, of Clinton, N. Y. It is probable that all
the larger asteroids have now been identified.
ANSWERS
TO THE
PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
IN THE
HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
23 — J. Why does not a fall hurt a child as much as it
does a grown person ?
The bones of a child are largely cartilaginous, and so do not
transmit a shock, or readily yield to a blow. They are also well
padded with fat.
2. Should a young child ever be urged to stand or
walk ?
No ; bow-legs are often caused by the premature use of the
lower limbs in standing or walking. Nature is the best guide
in such matters.
3. What is meant by “ breaking one’s neck ” ?
The dislocation of the vertebrae and consequent injury of
.the spinal cord.
4. Should chairs or benches have straight backs ?
The backs should conform to the natural shape of the spine.
This tends to prevent curvatures and other distortions of the
vertebral column.
5. Should a child’s feet be allowed to dangle from a
h igh seat ?
The position is as unnatural and painful for a child as for a
grown person.
6. Why can we tell whether a fowl is young by pressing
on the point of the breast-bone ?
144 ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Because that part of the breast-bone is not ossified in a
young fowl.
7 . What is the use of the marrow in the bones ?
It contains the blood-vessels carrying material for the growth
of the bone, and also diffuses any shock which the bone may
receive.
S. Why is the shoulder so often put out of joint ?
Because of the shallowness of the socket in the scapula.
.9. How can you tie a knot in a bone ?
By removing the mineral matter, and thus softening a rib-
bone, a knot can be easily tied in it.
10. Why are high pillows injurious ?
They elevate the head, and so give an unnatural position to
the spine. For the pads between the vertebrae to assume their
proper shape during the night they should be relieved of all
pressure.
11. Is a stooping posture a healthy position ?
No. Such a posture, made habitual, contracts the chest,
changes the outline of the spine, and diminishes the vitality
of the system.
12. Ought a boot to have a heel-piece ?
A low and broad heel-piece probably aids in walking; a
narrow or high one weakens and enlarges the ankle, produces
bunions, corns, etc., by throwing the weight forward upon the
toes, and makes the gait exceedingly ungraceful.
IS. Why should one always sit and walk erect ?
Because then all the organs are in their natural position.
An erect carriage is as conducive to health as to beauty.
14. Why does a young child creep rather than walk ?
(See Physiology , p. 50.)
Its bones not yet being fully ossified, nature teaches it not
to bear its weight upon them. Besides, it has not yet learned
the difficult art of balancing itself.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
145
15. What is the natural direction of the big toe ?
The natural direction of the big toe is in a line with the
long axis of the foot, but the conventional boot, which insists
upon an even-sided symmetry, and often upon a narrow tip,
tends to crowd the extremity of this toe toward the middle line
of the sole. If well-developed feet are placed side by side and
heel to heel, the two great toes will be found to be parallel to
each other, and to touch each other almost to their very ends.
If the same feet, clad in the shoes of the period, are placed in
the same position, it will be found that, while the heels are in
contact, the tips of the two great toes will be considerably
separated.
16. What is the difference between a sprain and a
fracture ? A dislocation ?
In a sprain, the ligaments which bind the bones of a joint
are strained, twisted, or torn from their attachments; in a
fracture, the bone itself is broken; in a dislocation, the bone is
displaced from its socket.
17. Does the general health of the system affect the
strength of the bones ?
Certainly. Impoverished blood will not make healthy bone.
46— 1. What class of lever is the foot when ive lift a
weight on the toes ?
The third class. The ankle-joint is the fulcrum, the weight
is at the toes, and the power is in front of the ankle, where
the muscle which lifts the toes (the extensor digitorium) is at¬
tached to the foot.
2. Explain the movement of the body backward and
forward, when resting upon the thigh-bone as a ful¬
crum.
The weight is at the center of gravity of the head and
trunk, high above the hip-joints, where the fulcrum is situated.
The flexor muscles of the thigh are the power, and act close to
the fulcrum. The weight is sometimes directly over the ful¬
crum, and may be on any side of it. This seems to the author
146
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
to be an example of the first or second class of lever.. Huxley
gives it as an illustration of the third class.
3. What class of lever do ive use when we lift the foot
while sitting down ?
The third class. The fulcrum is the knee-joint; the weight
is at the center of gravity of the foot and leg, and the power
is applied by the ligament which passes over the patella.
4. Explain the swing of the arm from the shoulder,
(See Physiology , p. 34 )
The third class. The fulcrum is the shoulder-joint; the
weight is at the center of gravity of the arm and hand, and
the power is applied by the biceps or triceps muscle at its at¬
tachment near the elbow.
5. What class of lever is used in bending our fingers?
The fulcrum is at the junction of the finger with the palm;
the weight is at the center of gravity of the finger, and may
play about the fulcrum as stated in second question. It is the
third class of lever, especially when force is exerted at the ex¬
tremity of the fingers.
6. What class of lever is our foot when we tap the
ground with our toes ?
(See Physiology , Tig. 14, Jc.)
The first class. The weight is at the toe when the force is
exerted; the fulcrum is at the ankle; and the power is applied
by the gastrocnemius muscle at its attachment to the heel.
7 . IVhat class of lever do we use when we raise our¬
selves from a stooping position ?
The third class. See second question. If we are attempt¬
ing to lift a heavy burden, the bones act on the principle of
the toggle-joint. “When one stoops to take a heavy weight
upon his back or shoulder, he puts both the knee and the hip-
joints into the condition that the toggle-joint is when it is bent;
and then, as he straightens up, the weight is raised by an ac¬
tion of the joints precisely similar to that of the toggle-joint in
machinery. In the case of the knee, the straightening of the
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
147
joints is done by the muscles on the front part of the thigh,
that draw up the knee-pan with the tendon attached to it.
This is using the principle of the toggle-joint in pressing up¬
ward. It is also sometimes used in pressing downward. In
crushing any thing with the heel, we give great force to the
blow on the principle of the toggle-joint, by flexing the knee
and straightening the limb as we bring down the heel upon the
thing to be crushed. In pushing any thing before us, we bend
the elbow as preparatory to the act, and then thrust the arm
out straight, thus exemplifying the toggle-joint. The horse
gives great force to his kick in the same way. The great
power exerted by beasts of draught and burden is to be re¬
ferred very much to the principle of the toggle-joint. When a
horse is to draw a heavy load, he bends all his limbs, especially
the hinder ones, and then as he straightens them, he starts the
load. In this case the ground is the fixed block of the mechan¬
ism, the body of the horse to which the load is attached is the
movable one, and his limbs are so many toggle-joints. By this
application of the principle, we see draught horses move very
heavy loads.”— Hooker’s Physiology. “So (admitting fable to be
fact), when the farmer, in answer to his petition for assistance,
was commanded by Hercules to exert himself to raise his wagon
from the pit, he placed his shoulder against the wheel, and
drawing his body up into a crouching attitude, whereby all his
joints are flexed, and making his feet the fixed points, by a
powerful muscular effort, he straightened the toggle-joints of
his limbs, and the wheel was raised from its bed of miry clay.
His horses at the same moment extending their joints, the
heavily laden wagon was carried beyond the reach of further
detention. ”— Griscom.
S. What class of lever is the foot when we tvalk ?
In the first stage it is clearly the second class. (See Physi¬
ology, Fig. 18.) The fulcrum is the ground on which the toes
rest; the power is applied by the gastrocnemius muscle (see
Fig. 14, k) to the heel; the resistance is so much of the weight
of the body as is borne by the ankle-joint of the foot, which of
course lies between the heel and the toes.
148
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
9, Why can we raise a heavier weight with our hand
when lifting with the elbow than from the shoulder?
Because we bring the fulcrum nearer the power. In the
former case it is at the elbow; in the latter, at the shoulder.
10, What class of lever do we employ when we are hop¬
ping, the thigh-bone being bent uj) toward the body and
not used ?
In this case the fulcrum is at the hip-joint. The power
(which may be assumed to be furnished by the rectus muscle*
of the front of the thigh) acts upon the knee-cap; and the po¬
sition of the weight is represented by that of the center of
gravity of the thigh and leg, which will lie somewhere between
the end of the knee and the hip.— Huxley.
11, Describe the motions of the bones when we are
using a gimlet.
The radius rolls on the ulna at the elbow, while the ulna
rolls on the radius at the wrist. The two combined produce a
free, rotary motion.
12, Why do we tire when we stand erect ?
(See Physiology, p. 37.)
Because so large a number of muscles must be in constant
action to maintain this position.
13, Why does it rest us to change our work?
We thereby bring into use a new set of muscles.
14, Why and when is dancing a beneficial exercise?
When dancing is performed out-of-doors, or in a well-ven¬
tilated room, and at proper hours, it is doubtless a beneficial
exercise, since it employs the muscles and pleasantly occupies
the mind. Late at night, in a heated room, with thin clothing
and exciting surroundings, it is simply a dangerous dissipation,
ruinous to the health, alike of body and soul.
* This muscle is attached above to the haunch-bone or ileum , and be¬
low to the knee-cap. The latter bone is connected by a strong ligament
with the tibia.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY .
149
15, Why can ive exert greater force with the bach teeth
than with the front ones ?
(See Physiology, p. 35.)
The lower jaw is a lever of the second class. In the former
case the resistance to be overcome, i.e., the weight, is situated
much nearer the power.
16, Why do we lean forward when we wish to rise from
a chair ?
(See Popular Physics, p. 57.)
In order to bring the center of gravity over the feet.
17, Why does the projection of the heel-bone make
ivalking easier ?
(See Frontispiece, and also Fig. 18 in Physiology.)
It brings the power further from the fulcrum or weight.
18, Does a horse travel with less fatigue over a flat than
a hilly country ?
No. The variety of travel in a hilly country, other things
being equal, tends to rest the horse, and enable him to better
endure the fatigue of the journey.
19, Can you move your upper jaw ?
All the bones of the face, except the lower jaw, are firmly
and immovably articulated with one another and with the cra¬
nium. —Leidy.
20, Are people naturally right or left-handed?
Many persons are naturally either right or left-handed; but
most can and should learn to use either hand with equal
facility.
21, Why can so few persons move their ears by the
muscles ?
Perhaps because of lack of practice ; more probably, how¬
ever, the muscles (see Physiology , p. 53 and Fig. 14) are de¬
veloped in few persons.
22, Is the blacksmith’s right arm healthier than the
left ?
150
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
By no means. Strength is not essential to health. The
right arm may be stronger, but the functions of the left may
be as active and well-performed.
23. Boys often, though foolishly , thrust a pin into the
flesh just above the knee. Why is it not painful ?
The muscles of the leg there end in tendons, which are in¬
sensible.
24, Will ten minutes 9 practice in a gymnasium answer
for a day’s exercise ?
Spasmodic or violent exercise is not beneficial. It should be
comparatively quiet, gentle, and continuous to produce the best
effect. Moreover, the vitalizing influences of the sun and pure
air demand that we should exercise out-of-doors.
25. Why would an elastic tendon be unfitted to trans¬
mit the motion of a muscle ?
Force would be lost by its transmission through an elastic
medium.
20, When one is struck violently on the head , why does
he instantly fall ?
The body is kept erect only by the constant exercise of
many muscles. These perform their functions through the un¬
conscious action of the brain and spinal cord. A blow para¬
lyzes the nervous system, the muscles at once cease to act, and
the body falls by its weight.
27. What is the cause of the difference between light
and dark meat in a fowl ?
i
The amount of blood which circulates through different
parts of the body. The organs of a fowl which are used the
most become the darkest.
69-1. If a hair be plucked out 9 ivill another grow in
its place ?
Yes. A new hair will always grow out so long as the pa¬
pilla at the bottom of the follicle remains uninjured.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
151
2. What causes the hah• to i6 stand on end 99 when we
are frightened ?
(See Physiology , p. 53.)
Many of the unstriated muscular fibers from the true skin
pass obliquely down from the surface of the dermis to the
under side of the slanting hair-follicles. The contraction of
these fibers erects the hairs, and by drawing the follicles to the
surface and drawing in a little point of the skin, produces that
roughness of the integument called “goose-skin,” or Cutis Anser-
ina. The standing on end of the hair of the head, as the re¬
sult of extreme fright, may be partly due to the contraction of
such fibers, as well as to the action of the occipito-frontalis
muscle. —Cutter.
3. Why is the skin roughened by riding in the cold ?
(See Physiology , p. 53; also Answer to Q uestion 2.)
4. Why is the back of a washer-woman 9 s hand less
water-soaked than the palm ?
The difference depends upon the relative abundance of the
oil-glands in different parts of the body.
5. What would be the length of the perspiratory tubes
h\ a single square inch of the palm , if placed end to end ?
(See Physiology , p. 61.)
The length of the perspiratory tubes differs not only in dif¬
ferent persons but in different parts of the same body. Some
authorities estimate the average length at £ of an inch, while
others—and, generally, later authorities—give only of an inch.
If we assume the former measurement, we have : 2,800 x ^ in.
-moo i n . = 58 ft. 4 in. If the latter, we have 2,800x T ^ in.
= in. = 14 ft. 7 in.
6\ IFliat colored clothing is best adapted to all seasons ?
(See Physiology , p. 67 ; Popular Physics , p. 260.)
Light-colored clothing is cooler in summer and warmer in
winter.
7. What is the effect of paint and powder on the skin ?
(See Physiology , p. 62.)
152
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
They fill the pores of the skin, and thus prevent the pas¬
sage of the perspiration. Moreover, they often contain sub¬
stances which are poisonous, and being carried in by the absorb¬
ents cause disease.
S. Is water-proof clothing healthful for constant wear ?
No. It retains the insensible perspiration by which waste
matter is being constantly thrown off from the system.
9. Why are rubbers cold to the feet ?
They retain the insensible perspiration. The moisture which
gathers absorbs the heat of the feet, and readily conducts it
from the body.
1 (). Why does the heat seem oppressive when the air is
moist ?
In the moisture-laden atmosphere, the evaporation of the
insensible perspiration from the surface of the body goes on
slowly. The heat, which would otherwise pass off through the
pores, is retained in the system.
11. Why is friction of the skin invigorating after a
cold bath ?
(See Physiology , p. 64, 65.)
The friction produces heat, expands the veins, etc., on the
surface, and, calling the blood in that direction, produces a
vigorous circulation. In other words, it causes a reaction.*
* Strength in the living body is maintained by the full hut natural
exercise of each organ; and, as we have seen, the actions of these por¬
tions of the nervous system is made dependent upon influences conveyed
to them by the sensitive nerves distributed over the various parts of the
body. And among these the nerves passing to the skin are the chief. The
full access of all healthful stimuli to the surface, and its freedom from all
that irritates or impedes its functions, are the first external conditions of
the normal vigor of this nervous circle. Among these stimuli, fresh air
and pure water hold the first place. Sufficient warmth is second. The
great and even wonderful advantages of cleanliness are partly referable to
the direct influence of a skin healthily active, open to all the natural
stimuli, and free from morbid irritation, upon the nerve-centers of which
it is the appointed excitant. This influence is altogether distinct from
those cleansing functions which the healthy skin performs for the blood;
and in any just estimate of its value is far too important to be over¬
looked.—H inton.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY .
153
12. Why does the hair of domestic animals become
roughened in winter ?
(See Question 2.)
It is a wise provision of Nature, since more air—a non-con¬
ductor of heat—is retained by the hair, and thus the rough
winter-coat of an animal is warmer than its smooth summer-
coat.
13. Why do fowls spread their feathers before they
perch for the night ?
(See Question 12.)
This is the same wise provision of Nature to protect the
fowl against the chilliness of the night. More air is confined
by the roughened feathers, and thus the internal heat of the
bird is prevented from radiating.
14. How can an extensive burn cause death by conges¬
tion of the lungs ?
(See Physiology , p. 63.)
The insensible perspiration is stopped upon the burned sur¬
face, and the excretions are sent to the lungs, which are over¬
worked and overloaded by the excess.
15. Why do we perspire so profusely after fir inking cold
water ?
The vital organs being chilled for an instant, the blood is
sent to the surface, a reaction is produced, the skin acts more
vigorously as an excretory organ, and the insensible perspira¬
tion is thrown off more rapidly.
16. What are the best means of preventing skin dis¬
eases, colds, and rheumatism ?
The skin should be kept in a healthy state by bathing, rub¬
bing, etc. Exposure to sudden changes of temperature should
be avoided as far as possible. Flannel worn next the skin, in
all seasons of the year, is an excellent precaution against un¬
avoidable exposure.
17. What causes the difference between the hard hand
of a blacksmith and the soft hand of a ivoman ?
(See Physiology , p. 50.)
The varying thickness of the cuticle.
154 ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
18. Why should a painter avoid getting paint on the
palm of his hand ?
(See Physiology , p. 62.)
19. Why should we not use the soap or the soiled towel
at a hotel ?
Because of the danger of contracting disease through the
absorbents of the skin. (See Physiology, p. 62.) There is a
similar danger in using a hair-brush or a comb at a barber
shop.
20. Which teeth cut like a pair of scissors ?
The “back teeth,” as we commonly call them, when moved
laterally, cut somewhat in this way. In chewing the food, all
the “ front teeth ” act like scissors, as may be readily seen by
noticing their movements.
21. Which teeth cut like a chisel ?
The incisors, or four front teeth of each jaw, have knife
edges; the canine teeth have wedge-shaped edges; the bicus¬
pids and molars have broader crowns. We can work the jaws
so as to make the front teeth either pierce like wedges or cut
like scissors.
22. Which should be clothed the warmer , a merchant
or a farmer ?
The merchant is liable to more sudden and violent changes
of temperature, and his body is less likely to be hardened by
exposure and habit to resist them.
23. Why should tve not crack nuts with our teeth ?
The brittle enamel is very liable to crack, and once broken
can never be restored.
24. Do the edges of the upper and lower teeth meet ?
(See Question 21.)
25. When fatigued , should you take a cold bath ?
Certainly not. The system is not vigorous enough to pro¬
duce a reaction, and the effect might be dangerous.
..... IN..HYGIENIC . PHYSIOLOGY. 155
26. Why is the outer surface of a kid glove finer than
the inner ?
This illustrates the difference in texture between the cutis
and cuticle; the dermis and epidermis.
27. Why will a brunette endure the sun’s rays better
than a blonde ?
(See Physiology , p 51.)
The skin is perhaps of a coarser texture, and not so sensi¬
tive to heat. May it not be also that the black pigment ab¬
sorbs the heat and radiates it again rather than transmits it
directly to the internal organs? It has also been suggested that
there is an increased flow of blood in the darker skin, and
hence increased perspiration.
28. Does patent-leather form a healthful covering for
the feet ?
No. The pores of the leather are partly filled, and hence
the insensible perspiration is largely restrained.
29. Why are men more frequently bald than women ?
This is to some extent the effect of the close, unventilated
head-covering commonly worn by men.
SO. On what part of the head does baldness commonly
occur ?
On that part most fully covered by the hat or cap.
31. What does the combination in our teeth of canines
and grinders suggest as to the character of our food ?
That we are to eat a mixed diet of vegetable and animal
food.*
* The question of the use of animal or vegetable food may well be re¬
mitted to the arbitrament of nature, as expressed in the desires; by which
it would be victoriously decided, in all such climates as ours, in favor of
the flesh-eater. But the sufficiency of vegetable food, if widely varied, to
maintain health and even strength, is not to be questioned, for those who
like it. When we hear that the ancient Persians lived a good deal on
water-cress, we naturally connect in our minds their physical inferiority
156
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
32. Is a staid, formal promenade suitable exercise ?
No. There is an intimate relation between the brain and
the muscles. The mind should be pleasantly employed to ob¬
tain the full effect of any exercise.* The sports of children are
often the very perfection of healthful gymnastic exercises.
33. Is there any danger in changing the warm clothing
of our daily wear for the thin one of a party ?
Very great. The body is not so well protected as usual
against a sudden change of temperature, as in going from a
heated room to the carriage, and a cold is often the conse¬
quence. This may lay the foundation of fatal disease.
34. Should we retain our overcoat, shawl, or furs, when
ive come into a warm room ?
No. The body will become over-heated, the pores be opened,
and the skin be rendered susceptible to the change of tempera¬
ture when we return into the open air.
with the poverty of their diet; hut finding, on the other hand, that the
Romans, in the best period of the Republic, largely sustained themselves
on turnips, and that degeneracy came in as turnips went out, we are com¬
pelled to reconsider our opinion. In brief, an exclusively vegetable food
may be best suited to those by whom it really is preferred. Children in
this respect exhibit the greatest difference; some, with manifest advan¬
tage, eat meat in large quantity—others can hardly be prevailed on to taste
it, and yet retain perfect vigor. Similar differences, in all probability, exist
among adults; but a vegetarianism self-imposed against the promptings
of desire, would tend, as a vigorous writer says, to make us “ not the chil¬
dren, but the abortions of Paradise.”— Hinton.
* The mental operations, like all others, are connected with changes in
the material of the body. In all our consciousness the chemical tenden¬
cies of the substance of the brain come into play, and thus a chain of
action is set up which extends throughout the system. The influence of
these brain-changes is felt wherever a nerve travels, and modifies, invigor¬
ates, or depraves the action of every part. Experience gives ample proof
of this fact to every one, as in the sudden loss of appetite a piece of bad
news will cause, or in the watering of the mouth excited by the thought
of food. And the history of disease abounds in evidence of a similar kind:
hair becoming gray in a single night from sorrow, milk poisoning an infant
from an attack of passion in the nurse, permanent discoloration of the
skin from terror, are among the instances on record. Hinton.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
157
35. Which should bathe the oftener, students or out¬
door laborers?
This depends entirely on circumstances—the amount of ex¬
ercise, the individual freedom and character of perspiration, the
state of the system, etc. Each case must be decided by itself.
36. Is abundant perspiration injurious ?
No. It removes impure matter from the system, and hence
may be beneficial. It may, however, weaken the body, and
frequent hot baths should therefore be taken only on suitable
medical advice.
37. How often should the ablution of the entire body be
performed ?
For the preservation of perfect health there should be daily
morning ablution in cold or cool water, using soap sparingly.
A warm or tepid bath, with a free application of soap, may
advantageously be taken once a week, followed by a dash of
cool water. It is well for children and delicate persons to
stand in warm water, having the cold water in an extra tub or
basin. They can then, with a large sponge, dash the cold
water freely over their bodies, and get the full tonic effect of
the cold bath without the coldness or discomfort which might
otherwise ensue. A cold bath should always be quickly per¬
formed, accompanied by vigorous rubbing to insure the reac¬
tion. Children especially should be thoroughly rubbed and com¬
pletely dried. Above all, let the daily wash be a delight, and
not a dread, to the little ones. A reluctant bath, with a hasty
dismissal, leaving the skin wet, the blood chilled, and the spirits
depressed, not only inflicts upon the helpless and unhappy
child a needless misery, but will be likely to result in chapped
skin and chronic catarrh, if in nothing worse.
38. Why is cold water better than warm for our daily
ablution ?
(See Physiology , p. 64.)
The daily repetition of the cold bath renders the system
less sensitive to changes in atmospheric temperature, the re¬
verse being the case with the warm bath. Still, it should be
said that not every one is able to endure the cold bath. If the
158
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
skin remains cold and blue in spite of friction, it shows that
the reaction has not taken place, in which case the bath is an
injury. Or, if for some time after the bath the bather feels
languid and weary, it indicates that the reaction is too much
for his nervous system. But, in most cases, if the habit is
formed by beginning first with tepid water, decreasing the tem¬
perature gradually, morning by morning, until the bather in¬
ures himself to the coldest water, the shock and the reaction
will be a luxury he will not willingly abandon. In this con¬
nection it may be said that, as water is a better conductor of
heat than air, water at a temperature of 75° or 80° will seem
cold to most persons (the normal temperature of the body being
about 98° Fahr.), though an atmosphere of that degree would
seem warm. The temperature of the room should always be
higher than that of the water.
39. Jfhy should our clothing always fit loosely ?
(See Physiology , pp. 14, 67, 96.)
Any thing that impedes circulation is injurious. Loose un¬
der-clothing is warmer in winter than tight under-clothing, on
account of the stratum of air between the body and the gar¬
ment. (See Question 12.) The effects of tight-lacing are well
known.* Too close-fitting sleeves interfere with the venous cir¬
culation of the arm, and tend to make the fingers cold and
blue ; while the pressure upon the nerves, which lie not far
* The evil effects of tight-lacing are not all nor always in the future.
Signs of distress are often quickly apparent; the nose purples, the upper
bowels emit croaking sounds, while the lower become unnaturally protu¬
berant; the womb falls, and the breathing and the circulation of blood
are so hindered as often to bring on palpitations of the heart and faint¬
ing ; especially after a full meal or in a close and sultry atmosphere. The
long-continued and tight pressure of corsets also wastes and impairs the
natural strength of the muscles of the back; so that without the usual
lacing there is a most uncomfortable feeling of weakness. The circulation
of the blood in the lower part of the lungs, from the severe compression
imposed upon them, becomes in an almost stagnant condition, producing
languor and a painful sense of lassitude. Continue this constraint, and
the cell-life of the lungs, liver, and stomach becomes permanently im¬
paired, laying a sure foundation for disease in these parts whenever the
constitutional strength and vigor begin to fail .—The Ten Laws of Health , J.
B. Black.
IX HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
159
below the skin, induce neuralgia and numbness in the fingers.
A rigid constriction about the arm-pit will frequently result in
a swollen hand. Tight elastics should never be worn upon the
lower limbs. Aside from all the discomforts and maladies at¬
tendant upon the wearing of tight garments, the natural ease
and grace of bodily movement are always more or less ob¬
structed.
40. Why should we take special pains to avoid clothing
that is colored by poisonous dye-stuffs ?
(See Physiology , p. 62.)
Because the particles of the poisonous coloring are liable to
be absorbed by the skin, and thus taken into the system. The
dangerous agent is usually arsenic, which is employed in dyeing
bright reds, magentas, aniline reds, and certain greens. Par¬
ticular care should be taken in the selection of hose. Unfortu-
9
nately, the pure white stocking has gone out of style, though
hygienically it is greatly preferable to the highly (often poison-
ously) dyed one that has succeeded to fashionable favor.
41. What general principles should guide us as to the
length and f requency of baths in salt or fresh water ?
(See Physiology , pp. 66, 291.)
Sea or river baths should never be prolonged to the extent
of sensible fatigue, and consequent inability of reaction. A
daily swim taken before breakfast, and limited to twenty min¬
utes at the outside, is to most people the best of tonics. Per¬
sons with pale skins (technically termed anaemic, or bloodless),
or those who are suffering from heart disease, should not at¬
tempt sea or river bathing, or, indeed, any cold bath, except
under medical advice.
42. What is the beneficial effect of exercise upon the
functions of the skin ?
(See Physiology , p. 62; also note, p. 42.)
Increased muscular action calls for an extra supply of blood.
The heart responds by more rapid beating, the lungs take in
more oxygen, and the bodily heat is heightened. To dispose of
this superfluous warmth, the oil and perspiratory glands are
stimulated to greater activity, the impurities which naturally
160
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
escape from the body by this avenue are hastened in their exit,
and the skin itself becomes soft and moist.
43 , Hoiv can ive best slioiv our admiration and respect
for the human body ?
By conscientiously observing all the laws of physical hy¬
giene, as well as moral purity.
44 . Why is the scar of a severe wound upon a negro
sometimes white ?
Because the cells containing the pigment or coloring matter
were destroyed by the severity of the wound, and have not
been restored.
99— 1 . What is the philosophy of the “change of
voice 99 in a boy ?
Up to the age of fourteen or fifteen, there is little or no
difference in point of size between the larynx of a boy and
that of a girl; but subsequently the former grows proportion¬
ately larger, so that at last, in the adult male, the vibrating
parts or vocal cords are necessarily longer than in the female.
They are also undoubtedly thicker, perhaps even coarser in
structure. From all these circumstances the adult male voice
is stronger, louder, and of lower pitch than the weaker and
higher vocal range accomplished by the female larynx.
The cause of the difference in quality of the voice, known
as its timbre , is not well known ; but it must undoubtedly be
dependent on physical, that is to say, structural peculiarities in
some part of the laryngeal apparatus.
The production of the different notes within the compass of
any one individual depends upon alterations in the length and
state of tension of the vocal cords, and on their degree of prox¬
imity or separation from one another. The higher notes require
the vocal cords to be comparatively shorter, tighter, and more
closely approximated together; while the lower notes demand
opposite conditions. A high note, furthermore, implies greater
rapidity in the movement of the air through the glottis; but
the quantity of air passing is larger during the production of a
low note.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
161
The volume or loudness of the voice depends mainly on the
combination of quantity of air with greater force of expulsion.
Loudness, with clearness, also demands a peculiar resonance
up in the nasal cavities and sinuses. Lastly, the unnatural or
falsetto voice seems also to be produced by some tensive change
effected in the upper part of the pharynx at the back of the
nose: hence it is called by singers the head voice , in contradis¬
tinction to the ordinary, or chest voice. — Marshall.
2. Why can we see our breath on a f rosty morning ?
The vapor of the breath is condensed by the cold air.
3. When a law of health and a law of fashion conflict 9
which should we obey ?
It depends, of course, whether we prefer to be fashionable
or to be healthy, to obey man or God. With too many people
the former is of far greater importance, and in selecting an
article of dress, few ask or think about the latter. The conse¬
quence is seen in the weakened frame, the prevalence of dis¬
ease, and the shortened life. God’s laws written in our bodies
can not be violated with impunity.
4. If we use a “ bunk 99 bed 9 should we pack away the
clothes when we first rise in the morning ?
No. They should first be thoroughly aired.
5. IFhy should a clothes-press be well ventilated ?
The clothes naturally contain the products of the insensible
perspiration, which passing off, pollute the air of the closet.
6 . Should the weight of our clothing hang from the
ivaist or the shoulder ?
From the shoulder, so as to avoid the constriction of the
compressible organs in the abdomen.
7. Describe the effects of living in an overheated
room.
(1) The body becomes more sensitive to change, and the
susceptibility to colds is greatly increased; (2) the dry, heated
air abstracts the moisture from the skin, rendering it dry, hard,
and incapable of performing its normal functions.
162
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
8 . What habits impair the po wer of the lungs ?
Above all others, those of a leaning posture, tight-lacing,
and ill-ventilation.
9. For full, easy breathing in singing, should we use
the diaphragm and lower • ribs or the upper ribs alone ?
Nearly all the inspirations are effected by the movements
of the diaphragm and the inferior ribs only. From time to
time a deeper and more complete inspiration causes the thorax
to rise, not simultaneously, but successively at the base, then
at the apex. In the first case the respiration is diaphragmatic;
when the lower and middle ribs are raised, it is termed lateral;
and, lastly, when the first rib and clavicle take part in the
movement, it is costo-superior or clavicular. In diaphragmatic
respiration, as M. Mandl has observed, the larynx is immov¬
able, the inspiration is easy, without effort, and permits exer¬
tion in singing or in gymnastics for a long time and without
fatigue. On the contrary, persons who respire principally by
the upper ribs are easily fatigued, and very soon out of breath.
This is seen in women when the corset compresses the base of
the chest, and in singers who adopt, on erroneous principles,
the bad habit of clavicular respiration. In this last method of
inspiration the larynx is drawn down by the contraction of the
external muscles, and its action becomes painful. The effort of
the inspiratory muscles rapidly induces fatigue, and the inspi¬
ration, always incomplete, becomes also more frequent. Dia¬
phragmatic respiration is practiced by mountaineers, gymnasts,
and skillful singers—a habit induced either by instinct, or a
well-directed education.— Wonders of the Human Body.
10. Why is it better to breathe through the nose than
the m outh ?
The air passing through the nostrils becomes filtered of its
coarse impurities, and the chill is taken off before it strikes
against the tender, mucous surfaces of the larynx.
11 . Why should not a speaker talk while returning
home on a cold night after a lecture ?
The cold air will strike against the vocal apparatus when
inflamed and peculiarly sensitive.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
163
12. What part of the body needs the loosest clothing ?
The abdomen; because of the delicate organs within, un¬
protected by a bony covering.
13. What part needs the warmest ?
The feet, because they are furthest from the center of heat
and motion, and most exposed to cold and wet: and the neck
and shoulders, since here are located the delicate organs of
voice and respiration.
14:. Why is a 66 spare bed” generally unhealthful ?
Because it is apt to be damp and unventilated.
15. Is there any good in sighing ?
(See Physiology, p. 82.)
It probably brings up the “arrears” of respiration.
16. Should a hat be thoroughly ventilated? How?
1. Certainly, as the heated, foul air is injurious. 2. Several
openings should be made on the sides near the band. A
single hole at the top is quite insufficient for ventilation.
17 . Why do the lungs of people who live in cities become
of a gray color ?
Probably because of the deposition of carbonaceous particles
which penetrate the substance of the tissues. The coloring is
permanent, like tattooing, where India-ink is pricked beneath
the skin.
18. Hoiv ivould you convince a person that a bedroom
should be aired ?
Take him from the fresh, pure, invigorating out-door at¬
mosphere into the close, depressing air of the bedroom, when
first vacated in the morning, and his sense of smell will satisfy
him of the need of ventilation.
19. What persons are most liable to catarrh, consump¬
tion, etc. ?
(See Physiology, p. 85.)
The victims of lung-starvation.
164
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
20. If a person is plunged under tvater 9 will any enter
his lungs ?
No. The epiglottis will close involuntarily, and prevent the
admission of water.
21. Are bed-curtains healthful ?
No. They prevent the free circulation of the air, and con¬
fine the waste products thrown off from the body.
22. Why do some persons take “ shor t breaths 99 after a
meal ?
The distention of the stomach prevents the free action of
the lungs. If such persons are not given to gluttony, the lungs
are small or the other organs misplaced.
23. What is the special value of public parks ?
They bring fresh air, sunshine, green grass and trees
within the reach of all. They are truly the “ breathing-holes
of a city.” They are thus of incalculable benefit both on ac¬
count of their sanitary and moral influence.
21. Can a person become used to bad air, so that it will
not injure him ?
The system may come to endure without complaint, but,
sooner or later, it never fails to inflict full punishment for the
infraction of nature’s laws.
25. Why do we gape when we are sleepy ?
(See Question 15.)
The stretching of the nerves may perhaps serve to restore
the equilibrium of the nervous influence, disturbed by the at¬
tention being fixed during the day upon some absorbing occu¬
pation.
20. Is a fashionable waist a model of art in sculpture
or painting ?
The Venus of Milo, in the Louvre at Paris, is the beau-
ideal of symmetry and beauty, yet the form indicates not a
“ wasp-waist,” but the full, free, flowing outlines of nature.
The sculptor and painter in copying the human figure can
make no improvement on its Divine Maker.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
165
27 . Should a fire-place be closed ?
(See Physiology , p. 99.)
No. It is a most efficient means of ventilation.
28. Why does embarrassment or fright cause a stam¬
merer to stutter still more painfully ?
Stuttering is mainly a nervous disorder, and hence any ex¬
citement tends to increase the impediment of the speech.
29. In the organs of voice, what parts have somewhat
the same office as the case of a violin and the sounding-
board of a piano ?
(See Popular Physics, p. 186.)
The pharynx, the mouth, and the nasal passages all act by
resonance to modify the voice.
30. Why should we be careful not to “ take the breath 99
of a sick person ?
Because, in this manner, special disease germs may be di¬
rectly transferred from the lungs of the sick person into our
own. It is well never to “take the breath” of any person,
sick or well, since impurities are constantly passing off from
every human system through the avenue of the lungs.
31. What special care should be taken tvith regard to
keeping a cellar clean ?
The walls and floor should be free from moisture, and any ac¬
cumulation whatever of dust or refuse. There should be not only
some means of constant ventilation, but the windows ought fre¬
quently to be opened to full currents of air from without.
Vegetables should never be allowed to decay in the cellar. In these
days of furnaces, when, in addition to the ordinary upward
travel of cellar odors, the sides of the registers in the rooms
above afford a direct means of ascent for all the foul or stag¬
nant air that may lurk below, the basement should be the
sweetest and most immaculate portion of the house.
32. Hoiv is the air strained as it passes into the lungs ?
The constant motion of the cilia, which line the air-pas-
sages, produces an outward current, which arrests and expels
166
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
intrusive particles that, swept inward by the breath, would
otherwise pass into the lungs.
33. Can one really 66 draw the air into his lungs 99 ?
(See Physiology , p. 80.)
Strictly speaking, no. In the act of inspiration we so con¬
tract the muscles as to enlarge the cavity of the chest, thus re¬
ducing the pressure upon the lungs, upon which the external
atmosphere, in seeking an equilibrium, rushes in to fill the
space.
34. Hoiv often do we breathe ?
Ordinarily about eighteen times a minute.
35. Describe some approved method of ventilation.
(See Physiology , p. 92.)
36. What is at once the floor » of the chest and the roof
of the abdomen ?
The diaphragm.
37. What would you do in case of apparent death by
drowning or by coal-gas ?
(See Physiology , p. 264.)
38. What would you do in case of croup, while the
doctor ivas coming ?
(See Physiology, p. 260.)
39. How ivould you treat a severe burn ?
(See Physiology , p. 257.)
40. Describe the various ways in which the water in a
well is liable to become unwholesome.
In towns and cities organic matter, solid or in solution,
permeates the soil to the depth of several feet, and shallow
wells are therefore quite certain to be polluted, as any earth
used constantly as a filter will, in the course of years, lose its
purifying properties. Wells, too, are often placed in dangerous
proximity to cemeteries, cess-pools, barn-yards, vaults, etc., and
in many cases receive direct drainage from these pestilential
sources. Impurities will collect in wells that are not periodic-
I
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY. 167
silly cleaned, especially if the water in them is not freely ex¬
posed to the oxygen of the air. If one must depend upon well-
water, the safest reliance is upon a deep-driven well.
I47 —1, Why does a dry, cold atmosphere favorably
affect catarrh ?
It tends to diminish inflammation in the mucous membrane
lining the nose and nasal passages.
2. Why should we put on extra covering when we lie
down to sleep ?
The respiration and the circulation are then less active.
The fire in our corporeal stoves being low, we need extra cov¬
ering to preserve the warmth of the body.
3. Is it well to throw off our coats or shawls when we
come in heated from a long walk ?
No. We need, instead, to put on extra clothing at such times
to keep the body from cooling too rapidly. The best hygienic
teachers commend the throwing of a shawl about the shoulders
whenever we sit down to rest after fatiguing labor.
4, Why are close-fitting collars or neck-ties injurious?
They impede both respiration and circulation.
5, Which side of the heart is the more liable to inflam¬
mation ?
The left; because that contains the red blood just oxygenated
in the lungs.
6*. What gives the toper his red nose ?
(See Physiology, p. 126.)
The congested state of the capillaries.
7. Why does not the arm die when the surgeon ties the
principal artery leading to it ?
The anastomoses of the arteries enable a collateral circula ¬
tion to be established, whereby blood is supplied to the arm.
8, When a fowl is angry . why does its comb redden ?
168
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
Because an extra quantity of blood is thrown into that part
of the body.
9. Why does a fat man endure cold better than a lean
one ?
Fat is a good non-conductor of heat, and helps to preserve
the uniform temperature of the body.
10. Why does one become thin during a long sickness ?
By absorption, the fat of the body is taken up and used to
supply the wants of the system. The old flesh being renewed
with new, vigorous material, a person often has better health
after such a wasting sickness than previous to it.
11. What would you do if you should come home (i wet
to the skin 99 ?
One should (1) go into a warm room ; (2) remove all wet
garments; (3) if chilled, take a hot, full or foot bath, and by
gentle friction restore the circulation ; (4) put on dry clothing.
12. When the cold air strikes the face, why does it first
blanch and then flush ?
The muscles and blood-vessels of the surface are contracted
by the cold, and the blood is driven back toward the heart.
The reaction which ensues forces the blood again toward the
skin, and this flushes with the incoming tide. The face is
therefore first whitened and then reddened.
13. What must be the effect of tight lacing upon the
circulation of the blood ?
It must, by contracting the blood-vessels, impede the flow
of the blood, and by decreasing the quantity furnished the
various organs, injure their action. Thus, finally, it will im¬
pair the quality of the blood.
11. Ho you know the position of the large arteries in
the limbs, so that in case of accident you could stop the
flow of blood ?
These can be located by examining the cut in Physiology,
page 104, or any good chart of the circulation.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
169
15. lVhen a parson is said to be 66 good-liearted," is it
a physical truth ?
The expressions, large-hearted, good-hearted, etc., are re¬
mains of the old idea that the affections are located in the
heart rather than in the brain—the seat of the mind and all its
attributes.*
16. Why does a hot foot-bath often relieve the head¬
ache ?
(See Physiology, p. 126.)
It withdraws blood from the head, and so relieves the con¬
gested state of that organ.
17. Why does the body of a drowned or strangled per¬
son turn blue 7
* In connection with this subject, the following from a recent article
by Dr. Wm. A. Hammond, will be found of interest: “In the very earliest
times of which we have any record, and even at the present day among
barbarous nations, the idea existed that the brain was not the only organ
concerned in the production of mind. . . . Doubtless, its origin was due to
the fact that, under the influence of certain emotions, there are disturb¬
ances in the organs with which they are associated. Thus, love quickens
the action of the heart; mental depression or anger deranges the liver;
and pity produces what is sometimes called 1 a sinking feeling ’ at the pit
of the stomach. It has been customary with modem writers to regard
these disturbances as being the effects of emotions that originated in the
brain, and not as indicating that the organs in which they are felt have
any thing to do with the evolution of love, or anger, or fear, or compassion,
or any other passion or feeling. . . . The idea has become so widely spread
among educated persons that the brain is the only organ of the body that
has any direct relation as a generator with the mind, that it seems like a
tremendous blow at the system of existing facts to attempt to take from it
any of its power. But it is only recently that physiologists and patholo¬
gists are beginning to make a thorough investigation into that great divis¬
ion of the nervous system consisting of the sympathetic nerves and their
ganglia.Now, it is not unreasonable to suppose that these
masses of the tissue in question, that are placed around the heart, the
liver, the spine, and other organs, and in vast number in their substance,
have some influence in causing the production of those emotions that
make themselves felt in the parts of the body with which former univer¬
sal beliefs, and our present forms of speech, have associated them. We
find, too, as an additional fact in support of this view, that in certain
mental affections, characterized by great emotional disturbances, these
ganglia are in various parts of the body the seats of disease.”
170
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
The blood is not purified in the lungs, and so blue or ve¬
nous blood fills the vessels.
18. What are the little ii hernels" in the arm-pits ?
(See Physiology , p. 125.)
They are the lymphatic glands, which sometimes become
swollen.
19. When we are excessively warm, would the ther¬
mometer show any rise of temperature in the body ?
(See Physiology , p. 120, note.)
Probably not. In health, the average temperature of the
body does not vary more than two degrees.
20. What forces besides that of the heart aid in 'pro¬
pelling the blood ?
(See Flint’s Physiology —The Circulation; Cutlek’s Analytic Anatomy , etc .
p. 166, et seq.)
The elasticity of the arteries and the veins, the force of
capillary attraction in the capillaries, etc.
21. Why can the pulse be best felt in the ivrist ?
It is, in general, a mere matter of convenience. We can
feel it not only in the radial artery at the wrist, but in the
carotid of the neck, the temporal of the forehead, the popliteal *
in the inner side of the knee, etc.
22. Why are starving people exceedingly sensitive to
anyjar?
The marrow of the bones is absorbed, and hence the shock
of a jar is unbroken. The nervous system is also weakened by
the general prostration.
23. Why will friction , an application of horse-radish
leaves, or a blister relieve internal congestion ?
They bring the blood to the surface of the body, and so re¬
lieve the internal organ.
* If the hollow of the knee of one leg he allowed to rest upon the knee
of the other one, it may he remarked that the point of the suspended foot
moves visibly up and down at each heat of the pulse.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
171
24. Why are students very liable to cold feet ?
Because the tendency of the blood is toward the head, to
supply the waste in that part of the body.
25. Is the proverb that “ blood is thicker than water ”
literally true ?
(See Draper’s Human Physiology , p. 112.)
The specific gravity of the blood varies from 1.050 to 1.059.
26. What is the effect upon the circulation of “holding
the breath ” ?
The blood is not oxygenated, the products of waste accumu¬
late in the system, the circulation is impeded, the blood-vessels
become distended, and are liable to burst, while all the delicate
organs, especially the brain, are oppressed by congestion.
27. Which side of the heart is the stronger ?
The left, which drives the blood to the extremities.
28. How is the heart itself nourished?
The coronary arteries springing from the aorta just after
its origin, carry blood to the muscular walls of the heart: the
venous blood comes back through the coronary veins, and
empties directly into the right auricle.
29. Does any venous blood reach the heart without
coming through the vence cavce ?
(See Question 28.)
30. What would you do, in the absence of a surgeon, in
the case of a severe wound ?
(See Physiology , pp. 128, 258.)
31. What would you do in case of a fever ?
(See Physiology , p. 263.)
32. What is the most injurious effect of alcohol upon
the blood ?
(See Physiology , p. 144.)
Its action upon the red corpuscles.
33. Are our bodies the same from day to day ?
No, they are constantly changing.
172 ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
34, Shoiv liow life comes by death .
(See Physiology , p. 122.)
35, Is not the truth just stated as applicable to moral
and intellectual as to physical life ?
Yes. We increase our moral and intellectual strength in
proportion as we use those powers.
36, What vein begins and ends with capillaries ?
(See Physiology , p. 161.)
The portal vein, which begins with capillaries in the digestive
organs, and ends with the same kind of vessels in the liver.
37, By what process is alcohol always formed ? Does
it exist in nature ?
By the process of fermentation. It has been generally be¬
lieved not to exist in nature, but recent experiments have seemed
to indicate that it does so exist, though in extremely minute
quantities. “Professor Muntz, of the National Agronomic In¬
stitute, in Paris, has, by refined chemical tests, discovered evi¬
dences of alcohol in cultivated soils, in rain water, in sea and
river water, and in the atmosphere. ... It appears probable
that the alcohol originates in the soil, from the fermentation of
the organic matters in it, and is thence diffused as vapor in the
atmosphere.”—W. O. Atwater, Century Magazine , May, 1888.
38, What percentage of alcohol is contained in the dif¬
ferent hinds of liquor ?
Ale and porter contain from six to eightf per cent. ; wine,
from seven to seventeen per cent. ; brandy and whiskey, from
forty to fifty per cent.
39, Does cider possess the same intoxicating principle
as brandy?
Yes, because cider that has begun to ferment contains alco¬
hol, which is the intoxicating principle in all spirituous drinks.
40, Describe the general properties of alcohol.
It is volatile, antiseptic, a solvent. It burns without smoke,
and with great heat, and has a remarkable affinity for water.
It boils at 172° Fahr.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
173
41. Slioiv that alcohol is a narcotic poison.
(See answer to Question 42.)
42. If alcohol is not a stimulant, how does it cause the
heart to overwork ?
Recently, physiological research has served to explain the
reason why, under alcohol, the heart at first beats so quickly,
why the pulses rise, and why the minute blood-vessels become
so strongly injected.
At one time it was imagined that alcohol acts immediately
upon the heart, by stimulating it to increased motion ; and
from this idea—false idea, I should say—of the primary action
of alcohol, many erroneous conclusions have been drawn. We
have now learned that there exist many chemical bodies which
act in the same manner as alcohol, and that their effect is not to
stimulate the heart, but to weaken the contractile force of the
extreme and minute vessels which the heart fills with blood at
each of its strokes. These bodies produce, in fact, a paralysis
of the organic nervous supply of the vessels which constitute
the minute vascular structures. The minute vessels when para¬
lyzed offer inefficient resistance to the force of the heart, and the
pulsating organ thus liberated, like the main-spring of a clock
from which the resistance has been removed, quickens in action,
dilating the feebly-resistant vessels, and giving evidence really
not of increased, but of wasted power.—B. W. Richardson.
43. Why is the skin of a drunkard always red and
blotched ?
It is the effect of alcoholic action on the vascular structure.
44. What danger is thei'e in occasionally using alco¬
holic drinks ?
Aside from injurious temporary effects, there is always the
supreme danger of forming a habit which will become uncon¬
trollable.
45. What is meant by a fatty degeneration of the
heart ?
(See Physiology , p. 143.)
In this disease, fat is substituted for true muscular tissue.
174
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
46. What keeps the blood in circulation between the
beats of the heart ?
The blood starts with a rush from the heart by the force
of its action ; the expansion and contraction of the arteries,
into which it is thus powerfully propelled, impart a steady on¬
ward pressure, which sends it to the capillaries ; there the proc¬
esses of oxidation, nutrition, and secretion draw the current on¬
ward, and push it out toward the veins ; thence it is forced back
to the heart by the power originated in the capillaries. (See
Draper’s Human Physiology, large edition, p. 145.)
47. What is the office of the capillaries ?
(See Physiology , p. 373, note.)
48. Does alcohol interfere with this function ?
(See Physiology , p. 117, note.)
Alcohol sometimes causes the red corpuscles to adhere in
masses, which obstruct their passage through the tiny capillary
tubes.
49. How does alcohol interfere tvith the regular office
of the membranes ?
(See Physiology , p. 143.)
It absorbs their moisture, and causes them to become dry,
hard, and thick.
50. How does it check the process of oxidation ?
(See Physiology , pp. 145, 146.)
By its effect upon the red blood-corpuscles, destroying their
efficiency as oxygen-carriers.
187—Jh How do clothing and shelter economize food ?
The force which would be converted into heat to preserve
the temperature of the body, is saved. The food needed to
supply this amount of force may be reserved or changed into
flesh, or into other forms of force.
2. Is it well to take a long walk before breakfast ?
(See Physiology , p. 41.)
A vigorous person in good health and in a healthy region
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
175
may do so, but one in ill health, or in a malarious district,
needs to be braced with food before taking any except very light
exercise.
3. Why is warm food easier to digest than cold ?
Heat favors the chemical change whereby the food is pre¬
pared for assimilation.
4:. Why is salt beef less nutritious than fresh ?
(See Physiology, p. 187, note.)
The salts and juices of the meat are extracted by the brine.
5. What should be the food of a man recovering from a
fever ?
It should be that which is nutritious, easily digested, and
not over-stimulating. Beef-tea or essence* is generally com¬
mended. As soon as the patient will bear it, beefsteak, tender,
broiled, and not overdone, is most beneficial.
6. Is a cup of black coffee a healthful close to a hearty
dinner ?
The tannic acid contained in tea and coffee is neutralized
by the milk generally used with these beverages. In cafe noir ,
black or clear coffee, the tannic acid acts unfavorably on the
mucous membrane lining the stomach. Besides, the coffee, like
a dessert, is superfluous, the appetite being already satisfied.
It therefore tends, both actively and negatively, to delay the
digestion of the meal. The glass of wine sometimes taken to
aid digestion merely deadens the sensibility of the stomach, so
that the food is hurried, half-digested, out into the intestines .\
* Dr. Martindale gives the following recipe for making this essence:
Cut a quantity of lean beef into small pieces, put it into a strong bottle,
without water, cork it loosely, so that the steam can escape, and immerse
the bottle to its neck in a vessel of cold water. Place on the fire, and boil
for two hours; then pour off the essence.
t Mix some bread and meat with gastric juice; place them in a vial,
and keep that vial in a sand-bath at the slow heat of 98 degrees, occasion*
ally shaking briskly the contents, to imitate the motion of the stomach;
you will find, after six or eight hours, the whole contents blended into one
176 ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
7, Should iced water • be used at a meal ?
Only a person in robust health can endure the shock of
drinking iced water at a meal. Indeed, drinking of iced water
under any circumstances is dangerous and hurtful. If used at
all, it should be carefully and slowly sipped , a little at a time.
8, Why is strong tea or coffee injurious ?
The tannic acid acts unfavorably on the coatings of the
stomach.* The nervous system is over-stimulated, and, when
the reaction occurs, becomes correspondingly depressed and
weakened. The constant decay of the body, so essential to its
highest activity, is greatly retarded. Wakefulness is often in¬
duced, and thus the organs are deprived of that rest which is
absolutely necessary for perfect health.
9, Should food or drink be taken hot ?
The pepsin of the gastric juice, in order to produce its
effect, must have a moderately warm temperature, neither too
hot nor too cold. The gastric juice will not act upon the food
when near the freezing point of water, neither will it have any
effect if raised to the neighborhood of a boiling temperature.
It must be intermediate between the two; and its greatest ac¬
tivity is about 100 degrees Fahrenheit, which is exactly the
temperature of the interior of the living stomach.— Dalton’s
Physiology, p. 103.
10, Are fruit-cakes, rich pastry, and puddings whole¬
some ?
(bee Black’s Ten Laws of Health , p. 83, et seq.)
They are too concentrated. They are not easily penetrated
by the juices of the system, and hence are not quickly digested.
They stimulate the appetite, and so lead to gluttony. They
supply the system with an over-abundance of nutrition, for
pultaceous mass. If to another vial of food and gastric juice, treated in
the same way, you add a glass of pale ale or a quantity of alcohol, at the
end of seven or eight hours, or even some days, the food is scarcely acted
upon at all.
* Tea contains from 14 to 16 per cent, of this astringent substance,
and coffee not over 6 per cent.—Y oumans.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
177
which the blood has no use, and so lead to biliousness and other
diseases of the blood and digestive organs.
11. Why are ivarm biscuit and bread hard of diges¬
tion ?
They form a pasty mass, which the juices of the digestive
organs penetrate very slowly.
12. Should any stimulants be used in youth ?
No. The system is then vigorous, and all its functions
promptly performed. If stimulants are ever used, it should be
when the body needs forcing, as when recovering from disease,
or languid with the decay of the natural powers in old age.
13. Why should bread be made spongy ?
(See Question 11.)
14. Which should remain longer in the month , bread
or meat ?
Bread, since the pepsin is essential to the conversion of
starch into sugar.
15. Why should cold ivater be used in making soup ,
and hot in boiling meat ?
In the former case, we desire to extract the juices of the
meat; in the latter, to retain them by quickly coagulating the
albumen on the surface of the meat.
16. Name the injurious effects of over-eating.
(See Physiology , p. 176.)
17. Why do not buckwheat cakes , with syrup and
butter 9 taste as well in July as iu Junitary ?
In tne winter, the system craves highly carbonaceous food;
in the summer, it relishes cooling, acid drinks, and an unstimu¬
lating diet.
18. Why is a late supper injurious ?
The system is wearied with the day’s labor, and the stom-
acn is unfitted to undertake the task of digesting a meal as
178
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
much as the body is to begin a new day’s task unrefreshed by
sleep.*
* Being allowed for once to speak, I would take the opportunity to
set forth how ill, in all respects, we stomachs are used. From the begin¬
ning to the end of life, we are either afflicted with too little or too much,
or not the right thing, or things which are horribly disagreeable to us; or
are otherwise thrown into a state of discomfort. I do not think it proper
to take up a moment in bewailing the Too little, for that is an evil which
is never the fault of our masters, but rather the result of their misfor¬
tunes ; and, indeed, we would sometimes feel as if it were a relief from
other kinds of distress if we were put upon short allowance for a few
days. But we conceive ourselves to have matter for serious complaint
against mankind in respect of the Too Much, which is always an evil vol¬
untarily incurred. VV hat a pity that in the progress of discovery we can
not establish some means of a good understanding between mankind and
their stomachs; for really the effects of their non-acquaintance are most
vexatious. Human beings seem to be, to this day, completely in the dark
as to what they ought to take at any time, and err almost as often from
ignorance as from depraved appetite. Sometimes, for instance, when we
of the inner house are rather weakly, they will send us down an article
that we could deal with when only in a state of robust health. Some¬
times, when we would require a mild vegetable diet, they will persist in
the most stimulating and irritating of viands.
What sputtering we poor stomachs have when mistakes of that kind
occur I What remarks we indulge in regarding our masters ! “ What’s this,
now?” win one of us say; “ah, detestable stuff! What a ridiculous fellow
that man is! Will he never learn? Just the very thing I did not want.
If he would only send down a bowl of fresh leek soup or barley broth,
there would be some sense in it”; and so on. If we had only been allowed
to give the slightest hint now and then, like faithful servants as we are,
from how many miseries might we have saved both our masters and our¬
selves !
I have been a stomach for about forty years, during all of which
time I have endeavored to do my duty faithfully and punctually. My mas¬
ter, however, is so reckless, that I would defy any stomach of ordinary
ability and capacity to get along pleasantly with him. The fact is, like
almost all other men, he, in his eating and drinking, considers his own
pleasure only, and never once reflects on the poor wretch who has to be
responsible for the disposal of every thing down-stairs. Scarcely on any
day does he fail to exceed the strict rule of temperance; nay, there is
scarcely a single meal which is altogether what it ought to be. My life is
therefore one of continual worry and fret; I am never allowed to rest
from morning till night, and have not a moment in the four-and-twenty
hours that I can safely call my own. My greatest trial takes place in the
evening, when my master has dined. If you only saw what a mess this
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
179
19. What makes a man “ bilious 99 ?
(See Hall’s Health by Good Living , p. Ill, et seq)
The liver strains the bile out of the blood. This waste mat¬
ter is not withdrawn when the liver is inactive, and hence the
face and eyes become yellow—the color of bile, and the func¬
tions all become torpid.
said dinner is—soup, fish, flesh, fowl, ham, rice, potatoes, table-beer, sherry,
tart, pudding, cheese, bread, all mixed up together. I am accustomed to
the thing, so don’t feel much shocked; but my master himself would faint
at the sight. The slave of duty in all circumstances, I call in my friend
Q-astric Juice, and we set to work with as much good-will as if we had the
most agreeable task in the world before us. But, unluckily, my master has
an impression very firmly fixed upon him that our business is apt to be
vastly promoted by an hour or two’s drinking; so he continues at table
among his friends, and pours down some bottle and a half of wine, per¬
haps of various sorts, that bothers Q-astric Juice and mo to a degree which
no one can have any idea of. In fact, this wine undoes our work almost
as fast as we do it, besides blinding and poisoning us poor servants into
the bargain. On many occasions I am obliged to give up my task for the
time altogether; for while this vinous shower is going on I would defy the
most vigorous stomach in the world to make any advance in its business
worth speaking of. Sometimes things go to a much greater length than at
others: and my master will paralyze us in this manner for hours, not
always, indeed, with wine, but occasionally with punch, one ingredient of
which—the lemon—is particularly odious to us. All this time I can hear
him jollifying away at a great rate, drinking health to his neighbors, and
ruining his own.
I am a lover of early hours, as are my brethren generally. To this
we are very much disposed by the extremely hard work which we usually
undergo during the day. About ten o’clock, having, perhaps, at that time
got all our labors past, and feeling fatigued and exhausted, we like to sink
into repose, not to be again disturbed till next morning at breakfast-time.
"Well, how it may be with others T can’t tell; but so it is, that my master
never scruples to rouse me up from my first sleep, and give me charge of
an entirely new meal, after I thought I was to be my own master for the
night. This is a hardship of the most grievous kind. Only imagine me,
after having gathered in my coal, drawn on my night-cap, and gone to
bed, called up and made to take charge of a quantity of stuff which I
know I shall not be able to get off my hands all night! Such, O mankind,
are the woes which befall our tribe in consequence of your occasionally
yielding to the temptations of “ a little supper.” I see turkey and tongue
in grief and terror. Macaroni fills me with frantic alarm. I behold jelly
and trifle follow in mute despair. O that I had the power of standing be¬
side my master, and holding his unreflecting hand, as he thus prepares for
180
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
20. What is the best remedy ?
Diet to give the organs rest, and active exercise to arouse
the secretions and the circulation.
21. What is the practical use of hunger ?
To prompt us to furnish the body with sufficient food.
22. How can jugglers drink when standing on their
heads ?
Because water does not fall into the stomach by its own
weight, but is conveyed thither from the mouth by the con¬
traction of the muscular bands of the oesophagus.
23. Why do we relish butter on bread ?
Butter supplies the carbonaceous element in which bread is
lacking.
my torment and his own 1 Here, too, the old mistaken notion about the
need of something stimulating besets him, and down comes a deluge of
hot spirits and water, that causes me to writhe in agony, and almost sends
G-astric Juice off in the sulks to bed. “Nor does the infatuated man rest
here. If the company be agreeable, one glass follows another, while I am
kept standing, as it were, with my sleeves tucked up, ready to begin, but
unable to perform a single stroke of work.
I feel that the strength which I ought to have at my present time of
life has passed from me. I am getting weak, and peevish, and evil-disposed.
A comparatively small trouble sits long and sore upon me. Bile, from being
my servant, is becoming my master; and a bad one he makes, as all good
servants ever do. I see nothing before me but a premature old age of
pains and groans, and gripes and grumblings, which will, of course, not
last over long; and thus I shall be cut short in my career, when I should
have been enjoying life’s tranquil evening, without a single vexation of
any kind to trouble me. Were I of a revengeful temper, it might be a
consolation to think that my master—the cause of all my woes—must suffer
find sink with me; but I don’t see how this can mend my own case; and,
from old acquaintance, I am rather disposed to feel sorry for him, as one
who has been more ignorant and imprudent than ill-meaning. In the same
spirit let me hope that this true and unaffected account of my case may
prove a warning to other persons how they use their stomachs ; for, they
may depend upon it, whatever injustice they do to us, in their days of
health and pride, wall be repaid to themselves in the long-run—our friend
Madame Nature being a remarkably accurate accountant, who makes no
allowance for ignorance or mistakes. —Chambers’ Memoir of a Stomach.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
181
24. What would you do if you had taken arsenic by
mistake ?
(See Physiology, p. 265.)
25. Why should ham and sausage be thoroughly
cooked ?
The trichina, which frequents pork, is only destroyed at a
high temperature.
26. Why do we wish butter on fish, eggs with tapioca,
oil on salad, and milk with rice ?
To supply the elements of food lacking in the composition
of fish, tapioca, etc.
27. Explain the relation of food to exercise.
Their relation is exceedingly intimate. If we eat much we
should take more exercise, and if, on the contrary, we labor
more, we desire additional food. Violent exercise, directly after
a hearty meal, is injurious ; but a gentle, quiet half-hour’s
saunter will greatly benefit the digestion.
28. How do you explain the difference in the manner
of eating between carnivorous and herbivorous animals ?
Meat requires less saliva to aid in its digestion, and hence
it is mainly digested in the stomach; while vegetable food
needs to be thoroughly masticated and incorporated with the
salivary mucus.
29. Why is a child’s face plump and an old man’s
wrinkled ?
In the child the processes of nutrition are more active than
those of waste. The reverse is the case in old age.
50. Show how life depends on repair and waste.
(See Popular Chemistry, p. 19, et seq. ; and Physiology, p. 122.)
51. What is the difference between the decay of the
teeth and the constant decay of the body ?
The particles of the teeth lost by decay are not renewed,
while in the body they are replaced as fast as worn out. The
182
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
soundness of teeth is often affected by the general health. It
has been said that a man who can preserve his teeth till he is
fifty years old may count on keeping them through life.
32. Should biscuit and cake containing yellow spots of
soda be eaten ?
Certainly not. The alkali neutralizes the acids of the ali¬
mentary juices, and thus impairs their functions, while it cor¬
rodes and irritates the delicate mucous lining of the digestive
organs.
33. Tell how the body is composed of organs, how or¬
gans are made up of tissues, and how tissues consist of
cells.
(See Physiology , p. 175, note.)
34. Why do ive not need to drink three pints of water
per day ?
(See Physiology , p. 151.)
The amount of water one needs depends upon the charac¬
ter of his food, the nature of his labor, and the activity of the
three eliminating organs—the skin, the kidneys, and the lungs.
One perspiring freely, or eating dry food, needs more drink
than one whose skin is inactive, or whose food consists, in
part, of soups or watery vegetables.
35. Why, during a pestilence, are those who use liquors
as a beverage the first, and often the only victims ?
The nervous system has become impaired, the digestion weak¬
ened, and the blood impoverished; hence, the functions of the
body being disturbed, its ability to resist disease is greatly less¬
ened.
36. What two secretions seem to have the same general
use ?
The saliva and the pancreatic juice both change starch into
sugar. They have other important uses, however, in the pro¬
cess of digestion. The former softens the food and aids in the
work of mastication, while the latter emulsifies the fats.
37. Hoiv may the digestive organs be strengthened ?
The digestive organs, like the other organs, are strength-
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
183
ened by judicious labor. The stomach is a muscle, and, like
muscle generally, grows strong by use and weak by disuse.
The same laws should govern one in his daily exercise of every
organ-brain, hand, and stomach.
38. Is the old rule, “ after dinner sit awhile 9 " a good
one ?
Yes; a certain period of rest, after a hearty meal, assists
the process of digestion.
39. What would you do if you had taken laudanum
by mistake ? Paris green ? Sugar of lead ? Oxalic acid ?
Phosphorus from matches? Ammonia? Corrosive sub¬
limate ?
(See Physiology , p. 266.)
40. What is the simplest way to produce vomiting 9 so
essential in ease of accidental poisoning ?
If mustard is at hand, mix a little thoroughly with warm
water, and drink immediately; if mustard is not convenient,
warm soap-suds will do; if neither is within reach, the finger
thrust gently down the throat may serve the purpose till other
means can be procured, or medical aid arrives.
41. In tv hat way does alcohol interfere with the diges¬
tion ?
“ Alcohol in certain quantities will harden meat, and there¬
by interfere with its digestion; it will further precipitate pep¬
sin and peptones ; and in large quantities it will also stop the
secretion of gastric juice, increase the secretion of mucus, and
even lead to vomiting.”
42. Is alcohol assimilated ?
No.
(See Physiology, p. 178.)
43. W r hat is the effect of alcohol on the albuminous sub¬
stances ?
Pure brandy held in the mouth a short time will cause a
burning sensation, and the inside of the cheek will become
slightly whitened and corrugated. This effect is due to the
184
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
albuminous substances in the mucous membrane being partly
coagulated by the alcohol, and it illustrates the action of this
agent upon the tissues.
44. Is there any nourishment in beer ?
The following table will show at a glance the materials
required for, and the result of, brewing:
Materials.
Chief Compounds in Beer.
Malt.
Water.
Hops.
Yeast from a pre¬
vious brewing.
^Alcohol, or spirits of wine, from 3 to 8 per cent.
Dextrine, about 4.5 per cent.
Albuminoids, 0.5 “
- Sugar, 0.5 “
Acetic and succinic acids, 0.3 per cent.
Carbonic acid, 0.15 per cent.
. Mineral matter, 0.3 “
Here it is seen that the nutriment of the malt has been
converted into the stimulant—alcohol. Whatever nourishment
there may be is of a saccharine nature, the dextrine when in
the stomach becoming converted into sugar. Of the two neces¬
sary nourishing elements—the nitrogenous and the carbonaceous
—the former is practically wanting; and of the latter there is
not enough to justify the use of malt liquor for the sake of it.
The chief difference between porters or stouts, and ales, con¬
sists in the malt from which the former is made, having been
more highly dried .—London Medical Temperance Journal.
45. Show how the excessive use of alcohol may first in¬
crease and afterward decrease the size of the liver.
In the case of cirrhosis (sometimes called gin - drinker’s
liver), the liver first becomes enlarged from exudation into the
connective tissue. After a time, this becomes organized into
fibrous tissues, and these fibrous bands contract and press to¬
gether the blood-vessels and cells of the liver, until both be¬
come atrophied and ultimately destroyed. In this way the
organ becomes much smaller in size, and greatly reduced in
weight.
46. Will liquor help one to endure cold and exposure ?
(See Physiology , p. 383.)
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
185
No. Experiments with Arctic voyagers have abundantly
proved this, while the certainty that alcohol, in its secondary
effect, lowers the temperature of the body, places the fact be¬
yond dispute.
47* What is a fatty degeneration of the kidneys ?
(See Physiology, p. 181.)
48, Contrast the action of alcohol and water in the
body.
(See Physiology, p. 178, note.)
49. Is alcohol 9 in any proper sense of the term, a food ?
This is a mooted point between the defenders and the op-
posers of alcoholic drinks. The author of this Manual consid¬
ers that the weight of argument and the preponderance of emi¬
nent authorities justify a decided “No” to this question.
50. Does liquor strengthen the muscles of a working¬
man ?
(See Physiology, p. 183.)
On the contrary, the strength of muscle is directly im¬
paired. Dr. Parkes, an eminent English physician, tested this
in a practical way. Taking a certain number of working-men
of similar age, equal health, and provided with the same
amount of food, he divided them into two gangs, agreeing to
pay them wages in proportion to work performed. The first
gang he supplied with a daily ration of drink, but withheld it
from the second. During the first hour or two the “alcoholic
gang ” went decidedly ahead of the other. Then they began to
flag, while the “non-alcoholics” went steadily on, and before
the day was done had far outstripped the drinkers. He then
reversed the experiment, giving the second gang an alcoholic
ration, and withholding it from the first. The result was the
same—the non-drinkers always coming out ahead. So decided
was the result of the experiment, and so deeply did it impress
the men who were engaged in it, though they were not aware
of its full significance, that the alcohol men begged to be put
upon the non-alcohol gang, in order, as they expressed it, that
they “ might make a little more money.”
51. Is liquor a wholesome i( tonic 99 ?
186 ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUES1T0NS
Certainly not a “wholesome” tonic, nor a true “tonic” in
any sense, for the reasons elaborated in the answers to the pre¬
vious questions. A real tonic builds up the system, and puts it
upon a permanent basis of healthy function. The effect of
alcohol is to impair, not to build up.
52, Is it a good plan to take a glass of liquor before
dinner ?
Alcohol is peculiarly injurious when taken upon an empty
stomach, and furnishes a sorry preparation for the proper di¬
gestion of food.
(See answers to Questions 42, 43.)
224— 1, JVhy is the pain of incipient hip-disease fre¬
quently felt in the knee ?
The sensation of pain is located by the mind, at the part
of the body where the injured nerve takes its rise.
2, Why does a child require more sleep than an aged
person ? m
The processes of nutrition are going on rapidly, and, in
youth, much rest is required to repair the losses of each day;
in age, waste predominates, and the repairs made are of a
temporary character. The building is soon to be torn down,
and little effort is taken to beautify or strengthen that which
is to be used for so short a time.
3. When you put your finger in the palm of a sleeping
child , why will he grasp it?
The unconscious action of the near nervous centers pro¬
duces a contraction of the muscles.
I, How may we strengthen the brain ?
By judicious, habitual, but not exhaustive employment.
The life of the brain is in change. Monotony is stagnation,
and stagnation is decay.
5, What is the object of pain ?
Pain is monitory in its character. It guards against danger
and warns us of the presence of disease, i.e., the want of ease.
Were it not for this, we should lose the use of the more deli-
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
187
cate organs. A child might gaze at the sun until its eyesight
was ruined. The author knew of a man who had lost the
sense of feeling in one leg because of the sensory nerve being
severed. He was constantly bruising and burning that limb
until he ruined it entirely.
6\ Why will a blow on the stomach sometimes stop the
heart?
By sympathy. The pneumogastric or tenth pair of nerves
supply the stomach and the heart.
7 . How long will it take for the brain of a man siac feet
high to receive news of an injury to his foot , and to reply ?
The nervous force has been estimated to travel at the rate
of one hundred feet per second, although authorities vary much.
Taking this figure, it would require about one eighth of a
second.*
8. How can we grow beautiful ?
If one is penurious, selfish, or hard-hearted, his face will
betray the fact to every passer-by. Purity of thought and no¬
bleness of soul, the simple habit of cherishing high and gener¬
ous purposes, refine and spiritualize the countenance, making,
at last, the homeliest features to glow with a beauty that will
be a true “joy forever.”
9. Why do intestinal worms sometimes affect a child’s
sight ?
Through the action of the sympathetic system of nerves.
10. Is there any indication of character in physi¬
ognomy ?
(See Question 8; also Physiology , p. 205.)
11. When one’s finger is burned 9 where is the ache ?
All pain is in the brain. It is located, however, by the
mind, at the place of the injury.
* A barefooted boy steps on a tborn. If he had to wait for news of
the injury to be sent to his brain, and an order to be telegraphed back
to remove the foot, much time would be lost. As it is, with the first prick
the nearer nerve-centers act and order the foot off almost before the brain
has heard of the accident.
188
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
12. Is a seldom-opened parlor likely to be a healthy
room ?
No. It is generally ill-ventilated, and, to preserve the fur¬
niture, kept dark, and hence damp.
13. Why can an idle scholar * read his lesson and at the
same time count the marbles in his pocket ?
(See Physiology , p. 204, note.)
The duality of the brain may, perhaps, account for this.
14. In amputating a limb, what part, when divided,
will cause the keenest pain?
When a surgical operation is performed, the most painful
part of it is the incision through the skin; the muscles, carti¬
lage, and bone being comparatively without sensation. Hence,
if we could benumb the surface, certain of the lesser operations
might be undergone without great inconvenience. This is, in
fact, very successfully accomplished by means of the cold pro¬
duced by throwing a spray of ether, or of some other rapidly
evaporating liquid, upon the part to be cut.
15. What is the effect of bad air on nervous people ?
The nerves connect all the organs of the body. They are
therefore especially sensitive to a derangement in the function
of any organ. Bad air causes impure blood, deranged nutri¬
tion, and hence a disturbance of the entire economy.
16. Is there any truth in the proverb that 66 he ivho
sleeps, dines 99 ?
The proverb expresses the fact that the nourishment of the
brain and other parts goes on actively during sleep, they being
controlled by the sympathetic nerves.
17. What does a high, wide forehead indicate?
It suggests a large brain and a high intellectual power.
IS. Hoiv does indigestion frequently cause a headache?
Through the action of the sympathetic system.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
189
19, What is the cause of one 9 s foot being “ asleep 99 ?
(See Physiology , p. 225, note.)
20, When an injury to the nose has been remedied by
transplanting skin from the forehead, why is a touch to
the former felt in the latter ?
The mind refers the sensation to the place where the nerve
naturally had its origin— i.e., the part over which its tiny fibers
were originally distributed.
21, Are closely-curtained windows healthf ul ?
No. They keep out the sun and the fresh air.
22, Why, in falling from a height, do the limbs in¬
stinctively take a position to defend the important organs ?
The reflex action of the spinal cord moves the limbs into a
position of defense, the brain having no time to act.
23, What causes the pylorus to open and close at the
right time ?
The reflex action of the nerves which preside over that
organ. In a similar way, a tickling in the throat excites
coughing.
24, Why is pleasant exercise most beneficial ?
A chief condition of keeping the brain healthy is to keep
the unconscious nervous functions in full vigor, and in natural
alternations of activity and repose. Thus it is that (besides its
effect in increasing the breathing and the general vigor of the
vital processes) muscular exercise has so manifest a beneficial
influence on a depressed or irritable state of mind. The bodily
movement, by affording an outlet to the activity of the spinal
cord, withdraws a source of irritation from the brain; or it
may relieve excitement of that organ by carrying off its energy
into a safe channel.— Hinton.
25, Why does grief cause one to lose his appetite?
Through the action of the sympathetic system.
26, Why should we never study directly after dinner ?
190
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
The blood then sets toward the stomach, and the whole
strength of the system is needed to properly digest the food.
27, What produces the peristaltic movement of the
stomach ?
The presence of the food which, through the sympathetic
system, acting involuntarily, sets in motion the complicated
apparatus of digestion.
28, Why is a healthy child so restless and full of mis¬
chief?
Nature prompts it to exercise all the muscles in its body in
order to their proper development.
29, Why is a slight blow on the bach of a rabbit 9 s neck
fatal ?
The medulla oblongata is not defended with thick muscles
as in man.
50, Why can one walk and carry on a conversation at
the same time ?
(See Question 13.)
51, What are the dangers of over-study ?
(See Hinton’s Health and its Conditions , p. 193, et seg., and Cutler’s Ana¬
lytical Anatomy , p. 248; also, Physiology, p. 331.)
Exhaustive mental labor overstrains the delicate nerve-cells
of the brain, and the condition of the blood-vessels of the en¬
tire body, especially of the vital organs, is regulated, moment
by moment, by its changing moods. Even the supply furnished
the brain is subject to the same influence. Hence results de¬
ranged nutrition, impaired circulation, and weakened brain and
body. Whenever we consume vital energy faster than it can
be replaced, we encroach upon the capital, and thus cause an
irreparable injury.
52, What is the influence of idleness upon the brain ?
If we would have healthy bodies we must have active
brains, that the streams of force may flow into every organ
from a full, fresh, energizing source. “The perfect health of a
man is not that of an ox or a horse.” The proper exercise of
the brain is an essential element of real life.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
191
33. State the close relation which exists between phys¬
ical and mental health and disease.
A partial cultivation of the mental faculties is incompatible
not only with the highest order of thought, but with the high¬
est degree of health and efficiency. The result of professional
experience fairly warrants the statement that in persons of a
high grade of intellectual endowment and cultivation, other
things being equal, the force of moral shocks is more easily
broken, tedious and harassing exercise of particular powers
more safely borne, than in those of an opposite description,
and disease, when it comes, is more readily controlled and
cured. The kind of management which consists in awakening
a new order of emotion, in exciting new trains of thought, in
turning attention to some new matter of study or speculation,
must be far less efficacious, because less applicable, in one
whose mind has always had a limited range than in one of
larger resources and capacities. In endeavoring to restore the
disordered mind of the clod-hopper who has scarcely an idea
beyond that of his manual employment, the great difficulty is
to find some available point from which conservative influences
may be projected. He dislikes reading, he never learned amuse¬
ments, he feels no interest in the affairs of the world; and,
unless the circumstances allow of some kind of bodily labor,
his mind must remain in a state of solitary isolation, brooding
over its morbid fancies, and utterly incompetent to initiate any
recuperative movement.—Dr. Ray.
34. In what consists the value of the power of habit?
It saves the “wear and tear” of our principles. We can
perform an act a few times, though with difficulty, and then
ever after it becomes a habit. We resist evil once, and thence¬
forth it is easier to resist. We can become accustomed to do
good, so that the chances will all be in favor of our well-being
in any emergency. By so much as the power of habit is thus
pregnant with good, by so much is it susceptible of terrible
evil.
35. How many pairs of nerves supply the eye ?
(See Physiology , p. 199.)
Three; the motores oculi.
192
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
36. Describe the reflex actions in reading aloud.
The body is kept erect, the hand holds the hook, the eyes
are directed to the page, the vocal organs pronounce the words,
the features express the sentiments, and the other hand makes
corresponding gestures—yet all the time the mind is intent only
upon the thought conveyed.
37. Tinder what circumstances does paralysis occur ?
When the nerve leading to any part of the body is injured
or fails to keep up communications between that portion and
the mind.
38. If the eyelids of a profound sleeper ivere raised,
and a candle brought near, would the iris contract?
It would, by reflex action.
39. How does one cough in his sleep ?
By the reflex action of the near nervous centers. A tick¬
ling in the throat, or some other cause, acts as the stimulus to
excite their action.
10. Give illustration of the unconscious action of the
brain.
(See Physiology , p. 225. Read also the article “ The Antechamber of
Consciousness,” in Popular Science Monthly , March, 1888.)
11. Is chewing tobacco more injurious than smoking?
It is not only more filthy, but also more detrimental to
the health, as a chewer is in danger of swallowing more of
the poisonous constituents of tobacco, from the constant and
profuse excitation of saliva, which must either be swallowed or
conspicuously ejected. As a rule, however, modesty in respect
to the disposal of his “tobacco juice” does not hinder the
veteran chewer from bestowing his peculiar favors generously
and openly, and to the least conscious injury to himself. On
the other hand, a smoker, especially a cigarette smoker, is liable
to dangerous throat diseases, incurred by the heated smoke in¬
haled from the cigarette.
42. Ought a man to retire from business while his fac¬
ulties are still unimpaired?
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
193
No. It is always a mistake for a man who has led an ac¬
tive life to withdraw, at once, from all occupation and to resign
himself to idleness. A proper degree of functional exercise is
as necessary to the perfect health of the mind and the brain as
to that of the body.
43, Which is the more exhaustive to the brain, worry
or severe mental application ?
(See Physiology , p. 331.)
Worry is far more exhaustive of the vital forces than the
severest mental labor, pursued calmly and dispassionately.
41- Is it a blessing to be beyond the necessity for work ?
By no means. On the contrary, the “middle-class people,”
those who do not suffer from actual bodily want, but who are
obliged to work in order to procure luxuries, or even comforts,
are proverbially happier than those who are born to riches,
and who have no incentive to systematic exertion.
45, Shoiv how anger , hate, and the other' degrading
passions are destructive to the brain.
The effect of anger upon the brain is to produce first a
paralysis, and, afterward, during reaction, a congestion of the
vessels of that organ. Passionate people often die suddenly of
faintness in the moment of white rage, when the cerebral ves¬
sels and the heart are paralyzed. Or they may outlive this first
stage, only to succumb to the second, when reactive congestion
has led to engorgement of the vessels of the brain, and apo¬
plexy ensues. Intensified hatred acts in a similar manner, but
more slowly. The effect on the brain of extreme fear is also
akin to that of rage, and may result in sudden death from
syncope.
The more common and permanent effect of fear, however,
is an intense irritability, followed by doubt, suspicion, and dis¬
trust, leading toward or to insanity. From a sudden terror
deeply felt, the young mind rarely recovers; never, I believe,
if hereditary tendency to insanity be a part of its nature.
Of these three- passions, anger stands first as most detri¬
mental to life. He is a man very rich indeed in physical
194 ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
power who can afford to be angry. The richest can not afford
it many times without insuring the penalty, a penalty that is
always severe. What is still worse of this passion is, that the
very disease it engenders feeds it, so that if the impulse go
many times unchecked it becomes the master of the man.—B.
W. Richardson.
46. Are not amusements, to repair the waste of the
nervous energy, especially needed by persons whose life is
one of care and toil ?
Yes, cheerful recreation is necessary in proportion to the
severity of toil and care. Nothing will replenish heavily-as¬
sessed brain capital like occasional rollicking merriment.
47. Is not severe mental labor incompatible with a
rapidly-growing body ?
Decidedly. A rapidly-growing child should never be over¬
burdened with mental labor. Youthful prodigies seldom develop
into solid, “level-headed” adults. Every extra demand upon
the youthful brain, beyond its normal power of healthy endur¬
ance, is subtracted with usury from its future reserve stock.
48. How shall we induce the system to perform all its
f unctions regularly ?
By uniformly obeying all the laws of Hygiene.
49. How does alcohol interfere with the action of the
nerves ?
(See Physiology , p. 208.)
Alcohol has the same effect upon the nerve-cells that
water or ashes has upon a coal fire. Apply water in small
quantity, and your fire will burn more slowly ; apply a large
enough bucketful, and it will cease to exist. When the cook
rakes up the ashes and covers her fire before going to bed, she
performs the same physical experiment as her master who
soothes his nerves with alcohol before retiring at night. But
the cook would be very late with breakfast if she trusted to
such a fire to cook the bacon, and the work accomplished by a
brain affected by alcohol is both small in quantity and inferior
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
195
in quality. It is as difficult to send proper messages along a
nerve under the influence of alcohol, as it is to fire a train of
damp gunpowder.—J. M. Howie.
50.
acter ?
What is the general effect of alcohol upon the char -
(See Physiology, p. 212.)
Alcohol exalts and excites the animal centers; it lets loose
the passions, and gives them more or less of unlicensed domi¬
nation over the whole man. “ From the beginning to the end
of its influence it subdues reason and sets free passion. The
analogies, physical and mental, are perfect. That which loosens
the tension of the vessels which feed the body with due order
of precision, and thereby lets loose the heart to violent excess
of unbridled motion, loosens also the reason and lets loose the
passions. In both instances, heart and head are for a time out
of harmony—their balance is broken. The destructive effects of
alcohol on the human mind present the saddest picture of its
influence. Memory irretrievably lost; words and very elements
of speech forgotten, or words displaced to have no meaning in
them; rage and anger persistent and mischievous, or remittent
and impotent; fear at every corner of life ; distrust on every
side; grief merged into blank despair, and hopelessness into
permanent melancholy. . As I have moved among those who
are physically stricken with alcohol, and have detected under
the various disguises of name the fatal diseases, the pains and
penalties it imposes on the body, the picture has been suffi¬
ciently cruel. But even that picture pales as I conjure up,
without any stretch of imagination, the devastations which the
same agent inflicts on the mind.”— Richardson.
51. Does alcohol tend to produce clearness and vigor of
thought ?
(See Physiology , p. 212.)
Quite the reverse. Its effect upon the brain and nervous
system is strikingly opposed to clearness of judgment and log¬
ical reasoning. See answer to preceding Question.
52. What is the general effect of alcohol on the mus¬
cles ?
196
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
They lose their nervous control, because of the enfeebling of
the nervous stimulus. The muscles of the lower lip usually
fail first; then the muscles of the lower limbs, the extensor
muscles giving way earlier than the flexors. As they come
still more under the depressing influence of the paralyzing
agent, their structure becomes temporarily deranged, and their
contractile power reduced.
33. Does alcohol have any effect on the bones ? The
skin ?
As the bones are nourished by the blood, whatever materi¬
ally impoverishes the blood must affect the bones.
The oft-repeated temporary relaxations of the vessels of the
skin, resulting from alcoholic potations, ultimately become
chronic, and certain parts, such as the nose and cheek, assume
a distinctive appearance of confirmed vascular relaxation. From
this deficient tonicity of the skin-vessels, the cutaneous secre¬
tion becomes irregular; perspiration becomes abnormally pro¬
fuse, and sometimes is extremely acid; and, finally, swollen
eruptions and scaly blotches ensue.
34. What is the cause of the alcoholic chill ?
(See Physiology , p. 210.)
33. Show how alcohol tends to develop man’s lower
rather than his higher nature.
(See answer to Question 50.)
30. When we wish really to strengthen the brain, should
we use alcohol ?
(See Physiology, p. 210; also, answer to Question 50.)
Never.
37. Why is alcohol used to preserve anatomical speci¬
mens ?
Because of its antiseptic properties. These were well known
in ancient times, and palm wine was used by the Egyptians in
their most costly processes of embalming the dead.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
197
58, What is meant by an inherited taste for liquor ?
(See Physiology , p. 185.)
59, Ought a person to be punished for a crime com¬
mitted during intoxication ?
Yes; because he knows in taking the alcoholic poison into
his system what the logical effect will be upon his actions.
At the same time, the rum-seller ought in justice also to re¬
ceive punishment for the criminal offense of aiding and abet¬
ting such a state of moral perversion.
6 * 0 . Should a boy ever smoke?
Never. Tobacco, in addition to its other evil effects, notably
stunts healthy growth.
51, To what extent are we responsible for the health of
our body?
To the extent of our neglect of known hygienic rules, or
even, in this age of easily-acquired information, to the extent of
our lack of knowledge of these rules.
52, 'Why does alcohol tend to collect in the brain ?
(See Physiology , p. 210.)
One cause is the great affinity of alcohol for water and the
peculiar moisture which attaches to the brain.
63, Does the use of alcohol tend to increase crime and
poverty ?
Even its most strenuous advocates will not deny this fact,
of which both statistics and common observation furnish abun¬
dant proofs. It has been estimated that four fifths of the pau¬
perism and crime in our country result directly from strong
drink.
238 — 1. Why does a laundress test the temperature of
her flat-iron by holding it near her cheek ?
The sense of warmth is very keen in the palms of the
hand, the cheek, etc. This sensation is much less delicate in
the lips and the back of the hand.
198
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
2. When we are cold, why do we spread the palms of
our hands before the fire ?
(See Question 1.)
S. What is meant by a 6i f urred tongue 99 ?
In health, the tongue has hardly a discernible lining, but in
disease, the epithelium, or scarfskin, accumulates, and gives a
white, coated appearance. This covering is likely to be of a
yellowish shade when the liver is disturbed, and brown or dark
in blood-diseases. One’s occupation often colors it. Thus it is
said the tongue of a tea-taster has a curious orange-tint.
4. Why has sand or sulphur no taste ?
They are insoluble in the saliva.
5. What was the origin of the ivord palatable ?
The mistaken notion that the palate, or roof of the mouth,
is the seat of the taste.
(i. Why does a cold in the head injure the flavor of our
coffee ?
Because the sense of taste is so dependent on that of smell.
7 . Name some so-called flavors which are really sensa¬
tions of touch.
(See Physiology, p. 348.)
Taste is not a simple sense. Certain other sensations, as
those of touch, temperature, smell, and pain, are blended with
it; and certain so-called tastes are really sensations of another
kind. Thus an astringent taste, like that of alum, is more
properly an astringent feeling, and results from an impression
made upon the nerves of touch, that ramify in the tongue.
In like manner, the qualities known as smooth, oily, watery,
and mealy tastes, are dependent upon these same nerves of
touch. A burning or pungent taste is a sensation of pain, hav¬
ing its seat in the tongue and throat. A cooling taste, like
that of mint, pertains to that modification of touch called the
sense of temperature.— Hutchison’s Physiology, pp. 190, 191.
8. What is the object of the hairs in the nostrils ?
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
199
They prevent the entrance of dust and other impurities.
They are also exceedingly delicate in all sensations of touch.
9. What use does the nose subserve in the process of res¬
piration ?
It warns us of noxious gases, sifts out impurities, and
tempers the air before it enters the delicate respiratory organs.
10. Why do we sometimes hold the nose when we take
unpleasant medicine ?
(See Question 6.)
11. Why is the nose placed over the mouth ?
As a sentinel at the gate-way to the stomach and the lungs.
12. Describe how the hand is adapted to be the instru¬
ment of touch.
Its isolation at the extremity of the movable arm, the mo¬
bility of its different parts, and the delicacy of the sensation
at the tips of the fingers, exquisitely adapt the hand to be the
instrument of touch.
IS. Besides being the organ of taste, what use does the
' tongue subserve ?
It aids in the mastication of the food and in speech.
11. Why is not the act of tasting complete until we
swallow ?
Because the organ of taste is located especially in the back
part of the tongue and the soft palate.
15. Why do all things have the same flavor when one’s
tongue is 66 furred 99 by fever ?
They are really tasteless. The tongue is then dry, and
there is no saliva to dissolve and carry particles of the food
into the cells covering the nerves of taste.
16. IVhich sense is the more useful, hearing or sight ?
(See Wonders of the Human Body , p. SOI.)
‘ ‘ The sight speaks more directly to the intelligence; it en¬
larges the field of thought, it gives birth to precise notions of
light, of form, of extent; and it permits the communication
200
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
of thought by conventional signs. Hearing is a necessary con¬
dition of articulate language; without it man lives alone, affec¬
tion and confidence lose their most precious forms of expression,
and friendship can not exist. Auditory sensations act upon the
nervous system with more force than visual sensations. We
are carried away by rhythm, or it adapts itself to our ideas
and our passions ; music plunges us into an ideal world, and
holds us by an indefinable charm; in a word, if sight speaks
more especially to the intellect, hearing addresses itself to the
affections. Sight is certainly more necessary to man than hear¬
ing, but still the blind are generally gay and communicative,
while the deaf seem inclined to melancholy. As to the relative
influence of these two senses on the development of the intel¬
lect, we know that the education of the deaf is slow, but may
be complete, while that of the blind is, on the contrary, rather
rapid, but is almost always very limited; many ideas can not
be acquired by them, and, as has been remarked by M. Longet,
their minds rarely attain maturity.”
17. Which coat is the white of the eye ?
The sclerotic.
IS. What makes the difference in the color of eyes ?
The varying shade of the pigment deposited in the iris of
the eye.
19. Why do we snuff the air when we wish to obtain a
distinct smell ?
As muscular actions are called into play to aid the sense of
taste, as in smacking the tongue and lips, so the act of “sniff¬
ing,” which is a mixed respiratory and nasal muscular effort,
is used to bring odorous substances more surely and extensively
into contact with the upper and proper olfactory region of the
nose, besides causing a larger amount of them to pass over the
mucous surface in a given time.— Marshall.
20. Why do red-hot iron and frozen mercury (— 40 °)
produce the same sensation ?
The sensation in both cases is that of pain, not that of
touch.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY .
201
21. Why can an elderly person drink tea which to a
child would be unbearably hot ?
The sensation of touch has become impaired, and is much
less delicate.
22. Why does an old man hold his paper so far from
his eyes ?
“Far sight” is common among elderly people, and is reme¬
died by convex glasses. In old age the power of adjusting the
crystalline lens is lost.
23. Would you rather be punished on the tips of your
fingers than on the palm of your hand ?
The sense of touch is much keener in the tips of the fingers
than in the palm of the hand.
21. What is the object of the eyebrows ? Are the hairs
straight ?
They serve to prevent the perspiration of the forehead from
running down into the eye. They act, in a measure, with the
eyelashes, also to screen the eye from the dust and glaring
light. The hairs of the eyebrows overlap each other, and are
set obliquely outward.
25. What is the use of winking ?
It serves to wash the eyeballs, and thus keep the “windows
of the soul” clean. The necessity for winking is shown by the
great effort required to restrain it even for a short time. First
discomfort, then congestion of the mucous membrane, and then
a profuse watering of the eye follow any attempt at stop¬
ping this necessary act. It is an obscure sense of discomfort,
not usually noticed by the consciousness, that excites this move¬
ment, the objects of which are periodically to cleanse the ex¬
posed part of the eyeball, to moisten and lubricate it with the
secretions from the neighboring glands, and probably in this
way to aid in the preservation of the polish and translucency
of the epithelial layer on the transparent portion of the globe.
At the same time it carries toward the inner corner all for¬
eign bodies, and directs the residual secretions toward the
202
ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
lachrymal ducts. Finally, it allows a brief but periodical rest
to the levator muscle of the upper eyelid.— Marshall.
2(i. When you wink 9 do the eyelids touch at once along
their whole length ? Why ?
In winking, both lids move, but the upper one much the
more extensively. Moreover, they do not come in contact all
along their margins at the same instant of time, but meet first
at the outer corner, and then rapidly inward as far as the
lachrymal papillae, on which the lachrymal ducts are situated.
By this sweeping movement, all foreign bodies are carried to
the lachrymal lake.— Marshall.
27. How many rows of hairs are there in the eye¬
lashes ?
The eyelashes, or cilia, consist of two, and opposite the
middle of the eyelid, of three rows of finely-curved hairs—
those of the upper lid being more numerous, thicker, and
longer than those of the lower lid. “Those of the upper lid
are curved upward, those of the lower lid are curved down¬
ward ; and when the lids are brought near together, these two
ranges of hairs stand like so many crossed sabers, or a kind of
chevaux-de-frise, guarding the entrance to the eye.”— Dalton’s
Physiology, p. 330.
28. Do all nations have eyes of the same shape ?
No. Witness the almond-shaped eyes of the Chinese.
“ The greater or less extent of the opening of the lids makes
the eye appear larger or smaller; the conformation of the pal¬
pebral muscles and the tarsal cartilages gives to the eye an
elongated and languishing form, as in the East, or round and
bold, as among the Occidentals; but the dimensions and form
of the globe are the same in all. countries and in all individu¬
als.”— Wonders of the Human Body.
29. Why does snuff-taking cause a flow of tears ?
Because of the action of the sympathetic system.
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
203
30. Why does a fall cause one to “ see stars ” ? *
Whenever a nerve is excited in any way, it gives rise to the
sensation peculiar to the organ with which it communicates.
Thus, an electric shock sent through the eye gives rise to the
appearance of a flash of light; and pressure on any part of
the retina produces a luminous image, which lasts as long as
the pressure, and is called a phosphene. If the point of the
finger be pressed upon the outer side of the ball of the eye, a
luminous image—which, in my own case, is dark in the center,
with a bright ring at the circumference (or, as Newton de¬
scribed it, 'like the “ eye ” in a peacock’s tail)—is seen ; and this
image lasts as long as the pressure is continued.— Huxley.
31. Why can we not see with the nose 9 or smell with the
eyes ?
Each set of nerves is adapted to transmit to the brain a
peculiar class of sensations alone.
32. What causes the roughness of a cat’s tongue ?
The sharpness and strength of the papillae upon its tongue.
This is a peculiarity of the lion tribe.
33. Is the cuticle essential to touch ?
Yes. If the cuticle be removed, as in case of a blister,
contact with the exposed surface produces pain rather than a
sense of touch.
34. Can one tickle himself?
It is said not; but the author has found persons who
averred that they could produce this sensation upon themselves.
The sense, it is noticeable, is present only in those parts where
that of touch is feeble.
* On the occasion of a remarkable trial in Germany, it was claimed by
a person who bad been severely assaulted on a very dark night, that the
flashes of light caused by repeated blows upon the head enabled him to
see with sufficient distinctness to recognize his assailant. But the evi¬
dence of scientific men entirely refuted this claim, by pronouncing that
the eye, under the circumstances named, was incapacitated for vision.—
Hutchison.
204 ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
35, Jf7ty does a bitter taste often produce vomiting?
The fifth pair of nerves, which supplies the lip and sides of
the tongue, and perceives especially sweet and sour substances,
ramifies over the face, and hence an acid will “pucker” the
features; while the ninth pair, at the base of the tongue, which
is sensitive to salt and bitter tastes, is distributed also to the
throat, and is in sympathy with the internal organs, since it
seems to be “a common nerve of feeling for the mucous mem¬
brane generally.”
36, Is there any danger of looking “cross-eyed” for
fun ?
The muscles used thus in sport may become permanently
distorted.
37, Should school-room desks face a window ?
No. The light should be admitted so as to fall over the
shoulder upon the book. Many school-rooms are arranged to
accommodate the teacher only, while a blinding flood of light
pours directly into the faces of the pupils.
38, Why do we look at a person to whom we are listen¬
ing attentively ?
One sense instinctively aids another.
39, JDo ive really feel with our fingers ?
No. All sensation is in the mind.
10, Is the eye a perfect sphere ?
No. The front projects somewhat, while, at the back, the
optic nerve is attached like the stem to a fruit.
11, How often do we ivink?
Five or six times a minute.
12, Why is the interior of a telescope or microscope
often painted black ?
To absorb the scattered rays of light which would confuse
the vision. For the same reason, the posterior surface of
IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
205
the iris, the ciliary processes, and the choroid, are covered with
a layer of dark pigment.
43. What is 66 the apple of the eye 99 ?
The pupil.
44. If hat form of glasses do old people require ?
(See Question 22.)
45. Should ive ever wash our ears with cold water ?
Rarely, if ever, lest we chill this sensitive organ.
43. TVhat is the object of the winding passages in the
nose ?
To furnish additional surface on which to expand the olfac¬
tory nerve.
47 . Can a smoker tell in the dark , whether or not his
cigar is lighted ?
Sight often seems to be essential to perfect what we call a
sensation of taste.
48. Will a nerve re-unite after it has been cut ?
Nerve-fiber seems to re-unite as readily as muscle-fiber.
49. Will the sight give us an idea of solidity ?
(See Physiology , p. 247, note.)
50. Why can a skillful surgeon determine the condi¬
tion of the brain and other internal organs by examining
the interior of the eye ?
(See Physiology, p. 248, note.)
51. Is there any truth in the idea that the image of the
murderer can be seen in the eye of the dead victim ?
When the flame of*a taper is held near and a little on one
side of a person’s eye, any one looking into the eye from a
proper point of view will see three images of the flame, two
upright and one inverted. One upright figure is reflected from
the front of the cornea, which acts as a convex mirror. The
206
A^XSWEBS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS .
second proceeds from the front of the crystalline lens, which
has the same effect; while the inverted image proceeds from
the posterior face of the lens, which, being convex backward,
is, of course, concave forward, and acts as a concave mir¬
ror.— Huxley. The images formed upon the retina are as
fleeting as light itself, from the nature of the case, and dis¬
appear as soon as the object is removed.
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Searing’s Eclogues, Bucolics,
and JBneid.
Barnes’s Brief Med. and Mod,
Peoples.
Barnes’s Brief Home.
Johnson’s Tacitus.
Johnson’s Perseus.
Mathematics.
Van Amringe’s Davies’s Sur¬
veying and Levelling.
Mineralogy.
Shepard’s Systematic Mineral Record.
Moral and Mental Philosophy.
Van Amringe’s Davies’s
gendre’s Geometry.
Le-
Janet’s Elements of Morals.
Penmanship.
Barnes’s New National System.
Physiology.
Child’s Health Primer,
Hygiene for Young People. !
Reading Circles.
Payne’s Page’s Theory and I
Practice Teaching. ;
Rhetoric.
Bardeen’s Shorter Rhetoric. I
Bardeen’s Complete Rhetoric
School and Church Music.
Fellow’s Watts on the Mind.
Steele’s Abridged Physiology,
Steele’s Hygienic Physiology.
Fellow’s Watts on the Mind.
Barnes’s General History.
Bardeen’s Sentence-Making.
Carmina Sanctorum.
Hymns and Songs of Praise.
Hymns and Songs for Social
Worship.
Speller.
Watson’s Graphic Speller.
Holbrook’s Part Songs.
Temperance Hymnal.
Ryan’s Vocalist.
SCHOOL
ADD COLLEGE TEXT-BOOKS.
Barnes’s
New
Reader.
No. 1.
12mo.
96 pages.
Barnes’s
New
Reader.
No. 2.
12mo.
176 pages.
Barnes’s
New
Reader.
No. 3.
12rao.
24 Q pages.
Barnes’s
New
Reader.
No. 4.
12mo.
384 pages.
Barnes’s
New
Reader.
No. 5.
12mo.
502 pages.
This new series of School Readers is prepared after a most careful and exhaustive exami¬
nation into the actual wants of the Public Schools of America, and the gathering together of
the bes ideas of some of the most eminent educators of the country.
In point of mechanical execution, printing, binding, &c., the series stands unexcelled.
The illustrations are the most beautiful that were ever put into a school text-book. They
are the productions of the best artists in the country, and include examples from Church,
Beard, Sol. Eytinge, Geo. White, J. G. Brown, Frenzeny, Cary, Lippincott, and others.
The prominent ideas sought to be maintained in this Series are : Perfection of the word-
method system; Easy gradation of lessons; Frequent reviews; Systematic drill in spell¬
ing; Judicious use of script exercises; the adoption of the conversational style; Brevity;
Elucidation of subjects by outline drawings, to incite a taste for drawing on the part of the
child; Beauty and fulness of illustration; Instructiveness of exercises and elevating
interest of the stories; Adaptation to the wants of both graded and ungraded schools;
Introduction of memory-selections from standard authors, &c. The Drawing Exercises
and Language Lessons are a particularly valuable feature of the early lumbers.
5
-«-
NEW NATIONAL READERS.
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
THE NATIONAL READERS.
By PARKER and WATSON.
No. i. — National Primer. 64 pp. 16*
No. 2 .— National First Reader .... 128 n 16*
No. 3 .— National Second Reader . . . 224 “ 16*
No. 4 .— National Third Reader . . . 288 “ 12 0
No. 5 . — National Fourth Reader . . . 462 “ 12°
No. 6 . — National Fifth Reader. . . . 600 “ 12°
National Elementary Speller .... 160 pp. 16°
National Pronouncing Speller .... 188 “ 12 0
THE INDEPENDENT READERS.
By J. MADISON WATSON.
The Independent First ( Pri ^ ary ) Reader .
80
pp.
16°
The Independent Second Reader . . .
160
Cl
16°
The Independent Third Reader . . .
240
«I
16°
The Independent Fourth Reader . . .
264
i i
12°
The Independent Fifth Reader ....
336
11
12 °
The Independent Sixth Reader ....
474
11
12°
The Independent Child’s Speller (Script)
80
pp.
16 0
The Independent Youth’s Speller (Script)
168
a,
12°
The Independent Complete Speller . .
162
u
16°
Watson’s Graphic Speller.
128
u
16 0
Superior in mechanical execution, comprehensive, progressive, practical, and interesting.
The Intro luction gives briefly the needful instruction and exercises in the elements of
spelling, pronunciation, words, and lines and figures. The Exercises in Drawing are
not surpassed by any school manual or set of cards, and the Writing Exercises are as
numerous and as progressive as those of any series of writing-books. The Vocabulary
contains about 6,000 of the most useful and desirable English words, strictly classified
with regard to form, length, sound, and topic. Their meaning and use is learned
from the Language Lessons and the Dictation, Reviews, and their correct pronunciation
is given everyvjhere. The Appendix contains Rules in Spelling, Capital Letters, Punctu¬
ation Marks, and Abbreviations.
6
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
WATSON’S INDEPENDENT
READERS.
This Series is designed to meet a general demand for smaller and cheaper
books than the National Series proper, and to serve as well for intermediate
volumes of the National Readers in large graded schools requiring more books
than one ordinary series will supply.
Beauty. — The most casual observer is at once impressed with the unpar¬
alleled mechanical beauty of the Independent Readers. The Publishers be¬
lieve that the aesthetic tastes of children may receive no small degree of
cultivation from their very earliest school-books, to say nothing of the impor¬
tance of making study attractive by all such artificial aids that are legitimate.
In accordance with this view, not less than $25,000 was expended in their
preparation before publishing, with a result which entitles them to be con¬
sidered “the perfection of common-school books.”
Selections. — They contain, of course, none but entirely new selections.
These are arranged according to a strictly progressive and novel method of
developing the elementary sounds in order in the lower numbers, and in all,
with a view to topics and general literary style. The mind is thus led in fixed
channels to proficiency in every branch of good reading, and the evil results of
“scattering,” as practised by most school-book authors, avoided.
The Illustrations, as may be inferred from what has been said, are ele¬
gant beyond comparison. They are profuse in every number of the series, from
the lowest to the highest. This is the only series published of which this
is true.
The Type is semi-phoneuc, the invention of Professor Watson. By it every
letter having more than one sound is clearly distinguished in all its variations
without in any way mutilating or disguising the normal form of the letter.
Elocution is taught by prefatory treatises of constantly advancing grade
and completeness in each volume, which are illustrated by woodcuts in the
lower books, and by blackboard diagrams in the higher. Professor Watson
is the first to introduce practical illustrations and blackboard diagrams for
teaching this branch.
Foot-Notes on every page afford all the incidental instruction which the
teacher is usually required to impart. Indices of words refer the pupil to the
place of their first use and definition. The biographies of authors and others
are in every sense excellent.
Economy. — Although the number of pages in each volume is fixed at the
minimum, for the purpose recited above, the utmost amount of matter avail¬
able without overcrowding is obtained in the space. The pages are much
wider and larger than those of any competitor and contain twenty per cent
more matter than any other series of the same type and number of pages.
All the Great Features. — Besides the above all the popular features of
the National Readers are retained except the word-building system. The
latter gives place to an entirely new method of progressive development, based
upon some of the best features of the word system, phonetics, and object
lessons.
7
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
PARKER & WATSON’S NATIONAL
READERS.
The salient features of these works which have combined to render them so popular
may be briefly recapitulated, as follows : —
1. THE WORD-BUILDING SYSTEM. — This famous progressive method
for young children originated and was copyrighted with these books. It constitutes a
process with which the beginner with words ot' one letter is gradually introduced to
additional lists formed by prefixing or affixing single letters, and is thus led almost
insensibly to the mastery of the more difficult constructions. This is one of the most
striking modern improvements in methods of teaching.
2. TREATMENT OF PRONUNCIATION. — The wants of the youngest
scholars in this department are not overlooked. It may be said that from the first
lesson the student by this method need never be at a loss for a prompt and accurate
rendering of every word encountered.
3. ARTICULATION AND ORTHOEPY are considered of primary importance.
4. PUNCTUATION is inculcated by a series of interesting reading lessons, the
simple perusal of which suffices to fix its principles indelibly upon the mind.
5. ELOCUTION. —Each of the higher Readers (3d, 4th, and 5th) contains elabo¬
rate, scholarly, and thoroughly practical treatises on elocution. This feature alone has
secured for the series many of its warmest friends.
6. THE SELECTIONS are the crowning glory of the series. Without excep¬
tion it may be said that no volumes of the same size and character contain a collection
so diversified, judicious, and artistic as this. It embraces the choicest gems of Eng¬
lish literature, so arranged as to afford the reader ample exercise in every department
of style. So acceptable has the taste of the authors in this department proved, not
only to the educational public but to the reading community at large, that thousands
of copies of the Fourth and Fifth Readers have found their way into public and private
libraries throughout the country, where they are in constant use as manuals of litera¬
ture, for reference as well as perusal.
7. ARRANGEMENT. —The exercises are so arranged as to present constantly
alternating practice in the different styles of composition, while observing a definite
plan of progression or gradation throughout the whole. In the higher books the
articles are placed in formal sections anti classified topically, thus concentrating the
interest and inculcating a principle of association likely to prove valuable in subse¬
quent general reading.
8. NOTES AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. — These are full and ade¬
quate to every want. The biographical sketches present in pleasing style the history of
every author laid under contribution.
g. ILLUSTRATIONS. — These are plentiful, almost profuse, and of the highest
character of art. They are found in every volume of the series as far as and including
the Third Reader.
10. THE GRADATION is perfect. Each volume overlaps its companion pre¬
ceding or following in the series, so that the scholar, in passing from one to another, is
only conscious, by the presence of the new book, of the transition.
11 . THE PRICE is reasonable. The National Readers contain more matter than
any other series in the same number of volumes published. Considering their com¬
pleteness and thoroughness, they are much the cheapest in the market.
12. BINDING. — By the use of a material and process known only to themselves,
in common with all the publications of this house, the National Readers are warranted
to outlast any with which they may be compared, the ratio of relative durability
being in their favor as two to one.
8
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING.
Monteith’s Popular Science Reader.
James Monteith, author of Monteith’s Geographies, has here presented a Supple*
tnentary Reading Book expressly for the work of instruction in reading and science at
one and the same time. It presents a number of easy and interesting lessons on Natural
Science and Natural History, interspersed with appropriate selections in prose and
poetry from standard authors, with blackboard drawing and written exercises. It
serves to instil the noblest qualities of soul and mind, without rehearsing stories of
moral and mental depravity, as is too often done in juvenile books. The book is elabo¬
rately illustrated with fine engravings, and brief notes at the foot of each page add to
the value and teachableness of the volume. 12ino, half bound, 360 pages.
The Standard Supplementary Readers.
The Standard Supplementary Readers (formerly Swinton's Supplementary Readers ),
edited by William Swinton and George R. Cathcart, have been received with marked
favor in representative quarters from Maine to California. They comprise a series of
carefully graduated reading books, designed to connect with any series of school Readers.
They are attractive in appearance, are bound in cloth, and the first four books are
profusely illustrated by Fredericks, White, Dielman, Church, and others. The six books,
which are closely co-ordinated with the several Readers of any regular series, are: —
1. Easy Steps for Little Feet. Supplementary to First Reader.
In this book the attractive is the chief aim, and the pieces have been written and
chosen with special reference to the feelings and fancies of early childhood. 128 pages,
bound ir. cloth and profusely illustrated.
2. Golden Book of Choice Beading. Supplementary to Second
Reader.
This book represents a great variety of pleasing and instructive reading, consisting of
child-lore and poetry, noble examples and attractive object-reading, written specially for it.
192 pages, cloth, with numerous illustrations
3 Book of Tales. Being School Readings Imaginative and Emotional.
Supplementary to Third Reader.
In this book the youthful taste for imaginative and emotional is fed with pure and noble
creations drawn from the literature of all nations. 272 pages, cloth. Fully illustrated.
4. Headings in Nature’s Book. Supplementary to Fourth Reader.
This book contains a varied collection of charming readings in natural history and
botany, drawn from the works of the great modern naturalists and travellers. 352 pages,
<loth. Fully illustrated.
5. Seven American Classics.
6. Seven British Classics.
The “ Classics ” are suitable for reading in advanced grades, and aim to instil a
taste for the higher literature, by the presentation of gems of British and American
authorship. 220 pages each, cloth.
9
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
Smith’s Series.
Smith’s Series supplies a Speller for every class in graded schools, and comprise*
the most complete and excellent treatise on English Orthography and its companion
branches extant.
1. Smith’s Little Speller.
First round in the ladder of learning.
2. Smith’s Juvenile Definer.
Lessons composed of familiar words grouped with reference to similar signifies,
tion or use, and correctly spelled, accented, and defined.
3. Smith’s Grammar-School Speller.
Familiar words, grouped with reference to the sameness of sound of syllables dif
ferently spelled. Also definitions, complete rules for spelling and formation of deriva¬
tives, and exercises in false orthography.
4. Smith’s Speller and Definer’s Manual.
A complete School Dictionary, containing 14,000 wor^', with various other useful
matter in the way of rules and exercises.
5. Smith’s Etymolog;y — Small and Complete Editions.
The first and only Etymology to recognize the Anglo-Saxon our mother tongue;
containing also full lists of derivatives from the Latin, Greek, Gaelic, Swedish, Norman,
&c., Ac. ; being, in fact, a complete etymology of the language for schools.
Northend’s Dictation Exercises.
Embracing valuable information on a thousand topics, communicated in such a
manner as at once to relieve the exercise of spelling of its usual tedium, and combine
it with instruction of a general character calculated to profit and amuse.
Phillip’s Independent Writing Speller*-
1. Primary. 2. Intermediate. 3. Advanced.
Unquestionably the best results can be attained in writing spelling exercises. This
series combines with wu-itten exercise a thorough and practical instruction in penman,
ship. Copies in capitals and small letters are set on every page. Spaces for twenty
words and definitions and errors are given in each lesson. In the ad'-rnced book there
is additional space for sentences. In practical life we spell only when we write.
Brown’s Pencil Tablet for Written Spelling.
The cheapest prepared pad of ruled blanks, with stiff board back, sufficient foi
64 lessons of 25 words.
Pooler’s Test Speller.
The best collection of “ hard words ” yet made. The more uncommon ones are fully
defined, and the whole are arranged alphabetically for convenient reference. The book
is designed for Teachers’ Institutes and “ Spelling Schools,’’ and is prepared by an
experienced and well-known conductor of Institutes.
Wright’s Analytical Orthography.
This standard work is popular, because it teaches the elementary sounds in a
plain and philosophical manner, and presents orthography and orthoepy in an easy,
uniform system of analysis or parsing.
10
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
ORTHOGRAPHY — Continued.
Barber’s Complete Writing Speller.
“The Student’s Own Hand-Book of Ortnograpliy, Definitions, anct Sentences, con.
sisting of Written Exercises in the Proper Spelling, Meaning, and Use of Words.”
(Published 1873.) This differs from Sherwood’s and other writing spellers in its more
comprehensive character. Its blanks are adapted to writing whole sentences instead
of detached words, with the proper divisions for numbering, corrections, &c. Such
aids as this, like Watson’s Child’s Speller and Phillip’s Writing Speller, find their
raison d’etre in the postulate that the art of correct spelling is dependent upon written,
and not upon spoken language, for its utility, if not for its very existence. Hence
the indirectness of purely oral instruction.
ETYMOLOGY.
Smith’s Complete Etymology.
Smith’s Condensed Etymology.
Containing the Anglo-Saxon, French, Dutch, German, Welsh, Danish, Gothic, Swedish,
Gaelic, Italian, Latin, and Greek roots,
accurately spelled, accented, and defined.
From Hon. Jno. G. McMynn, late State
Superintendent of Wisconsin.
(i I wish every teacher in the country
had a copy of this work.”
From Ppof. C. H. Verrill, Pa. State
Normal School.
'‘The Etymology (Smith’s) which we
procured of you we like much. It is the
best work for the class-room we have
seen.”
the English words derived therefrom
From Prin. Wm. F. Phelps, Minn. State
Normal.
“The book is superb—just what is
needed in the department of etymology
and spelling.”
From Hon. Edward Ballard, Supt. oj
Common Schools, State of Maine.
,c The author has furnished a manual of
singular utility for its purpose.”
DICTIONARY.
Williams’s Dictionary of Synonyms ;
Or, Topical Lexicon. This work is a School Dictionary, an Etymology, a compilation
of Synonyms, and a manual of General Information. It differs from the ordinary lexicon
in being arranged by topics, instead of the letters of the alphabet, thus realizing thfl
apparent paradox of a “ Readable Dictionary.” An unusually valuable school-book.
Kwong’s Dictionary of English Phrases.
With Illustrative Sentences, collections of English and Chinese Proverbs, transla¬
tions of Latin and French Phrases, historical sketch of the Chinese Empire, a chrono¬
logical list of the Chinese Dynasties, brief biographical sketches of Confucius and
of°Jesus, and complete index. By Kwong Ki Chiu, late Member of the Chinese Edu¬
cational Mission in the United States, and formerly principal teacher of English in the
Government School at Shanghai, China. 9f 0 pages. 8vo. Cloth.
From the Hartford Courant: “ The volume is one of the most curious and interest¬
ing of linguistic works.”
From the New York Nation : “ It will amaze the sand-lot gentry to be informed that
this remarkable work will supplement our English dictionaries even for native Americans "
ll
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
DICTIONARIES — Continued.
Jenkins’s Handy Lexicon.
Jenkins’s Vest-Pocket Lexicon. •
A dictionary of all except familiar words, including the principal scientific and tech¬
nical terms, and foreign moneys, weights, and measures. It omits grammatical and.
terminal variations, since words varying as narrate, narrative, narratively, etc., would
all he understood by becoming acquainted with any one of them.
Obsolete and local words are generally omitted.
Latin and French phrases of two or three words, and names of classical mythology
can be found in their alphabetical places. Also foreign moneys, weights, and measures.
By omitting words which every one knows, there is room for nearly all that any one
requires to know.
Anglo-Saxon Dictionary.
A handy Anglo-Saxon dictionary, adapted from Grein’s Library of Anglo-Saxon
poetry. By Dr. Fr. Groschopp. Translated into English, revised and corrected, with
outline of Anglo-Saxon grammar and a list of irregular verbs, by William Malone
Baskerville, Ph. D. (Lips.), Professor of English Language and Literature, Vanderbilt
University, and James Albert Harrison, Professor of English and Modern Languages,
Washington and Lee University.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Cobbett’s English Grammar.
With notes, by Robert Waters, Principal of West Hoboken High School. Author of
“ Life and Language of Cobbett.’’
This book consists of a series of twenty-one letters, written by William Cobbett.
They are intended for schools and young persons, but more especially for sailors,
apprentices, soldiers, and plough-boys.
In addition to these letters there are six lessons intended to prevent statesmen from
using false grammar and from writing in an awkward manner.
This is the only grammar that can profitably be used without a teacher.
The notes are written in an easy style, and are simple and plain.
Some Topics in English Grammar.
By Arthur Hinds. 142 pages. 16mo. Cloth. >
Teachers are almost unanimous in condemning grammars as untruthful, or inconsist¬
ent, or complicated, or as combining these faults. The distinctive features of this
work, which is the J. G. Scott, or Westfield Normal School system, are : the natural
method of presenting the subjects, the cutting loose from what is mere tradition, the
conciseness with which the matter is treated. The book should be read by every pupil
and teacher of grammar.
Johnson’s Elements of English Grammar. Part I.
106 pages. 12mo. Half-bound.
To learn the rudiments of English Grammar, there is no little bonk more clear and
simple than this beginner’s book, by Mr. H. F. Johnson, of Brookhaven, Miss. It is
based upon the plan of questions and answers, and is adapted to the comprehension of
the youngest learners of language.
R. G. White’s Grammar of the “ Grammarless
Tongue.”
If English can be released from rigid formulas derived from its analogies with other
tongues^ and taught as a distinct science, subject only to the laws of reason, we shall
have “ Grammar/’ as taught by the Fathers, fully reconciled with the modern race for
“ Language Lessons,” and the'happy middle ground of the future established. To real¬
ize this, see Professor Sill’s new book.
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
SILL’S SYSTEM.
Practical Lessons in English.
A brief course in Grammar and Composition. By J. M. B. Sill. This beautiful
book, by a distinguished and experienced teacher, at once adopted for exclusive use
in the State of Oregon and the city of Detroit, simply releases English Grammar
from bondage to Latin and Greek formulas. Our language is worthy of being taught
as a distinct and independent science. It is almost destitute of inflections and yet
capable of being systematized, and its study may certainly be simplified if treated by
itself and for itself alone. Superintendent Sill has cut the Gordian knot and leads
the van of a new school of grammarians.
CLARK’S SYSTEM.
Clark’s Easy Lessons in Language
Contains illustrated object-lessons of the most attractive character, and is couched
in language freed as much as possible from the dry technicalities of the science.
Clark’s Brief English Grammar.
Part I. is adapted to youngest learners, and the whole forms a complete “ bref
course ” in one volume, adequate to the wants of the common school. There is no¬
where published a superior text-book for learning the English tongue than this.
Clark’s Normal Grammar.
Designed to occupy the same grade as the author’s veteran “ Practical ” Grammar,
though the latter is still furnished upon order. The Normal is an entirely new treatise.
It is a full exposition of the system as described below, with all the most recent im¬
provements. Some of its peculiarities are,—a happy blending of Syntheses with
Analyses ; thorough criticisms of common errors in the use of our language ; and
important improvements in the syntax of sentences and of phrases.
Clark’s Key to the Diagrams.
Clark’s Analysis of the English Language.
Clark’s Grammatical Chart.
The theo-y and practice of teaching grammar in American schools is meeting with a
thorough revolution from the use of this system. While the old methods offer profi¬
ciency to the pupil only after much weary plodding and dull memorizing, this affords
from the inception the advantage of practical Object Teaching, addressing the eye by
means of illustrative figures; furnishes association to the memory, its most powerful
aid, and diverts the pupil by taxing his ingenuity. Teachers who are using Clark’s
Grammar uniformly testify that they and their pupils find it the most interesting study
of the school course.
Like all great and radical improvements, the system naturally met at first with much
unreasonable opposition. It has not only outlived the greater part of this opposition,
but finds many of its warmest admirers among those who could not at first tolerate so
radical an innovation. All it wants is an impartial trial to convince the most scep¬
tical of its merit. No one who has fairly and intelligently tested it in the school-room
has ever been known to go back to the old method. A great success is already
established, and it is easy to prophesy that the day is not far distant when it will he
the only system or teaching English Grammar. As the System is copyrighted, no otnei
text-books can appropriate this obvious and great improvement.
Welch’s Analysis of the English Sentence.
Remarkable for its new and simple classification, its method of treating connectives.
Its explanations of the idioms and constructive laws of the language, &c.
13
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS .
GEOGRAPHY.
MONTEITH’S SYSTEM.
TWO-BOOK SERIES. INDEPENDENT COURSE.
Monteith’s Elementary Geography.
Monteith s s Comprehensive Geography (103 maps).
► These volumes are not revisions of old works, not an addition to any series,
butare entirely new productions, — each by itself complete, independent, comprehen¬
sive yet simple, brief, cheap, and popular ; or, taken together, the most admirable
“ series ” ever ottered for a common-school course. They present the following features,
skilfully interwoven, the student learning all about one country at a time. Always
revised to date of printing. , „ , . ,,
LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, the Use of Maps. Important features of the maps
are the coloring of States as objects, and the ingenious system for laying down a much
larger number of names for reference than are lound on any other maps ol same size,
and without crowding. , _ ,
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, the Natural Features of the Earth ; illus¬
trated by the original and striking relief maps, being bird’s-eye views or photographic
pictures of the earth’s surface. . ...
DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. — Including the Physical; with some account
of Governments and Races, Animals, &c. ... . , _
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. —Or, a brief summary of the salient points of
history, explaining the present distribution of nations, origin of geographical
^MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. —Including Astronomical, which describes
the Earth’s position and character among planets ; also the Zones, Parallels, &c.
COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY. —Or, a system of analogy, connecting new
lessons with the previous ones. Comparative sizes and latitudes are shown on the
margin of each map, and all countries are measured in the “ frame of Kansas. ”
TOPICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Consisting of questions for review, and testing
the student’s general and specific knowledge of the subject, with suggestions for
geographical compositions. , ,, . ... ... •„
ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. —A section devoted to this subject, with maps, will
be appreciated by teachers. It is seldom taught in our common schools, because it
has heretofore required the purchase of a separate book.
GRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY, or Map-Drawing by Allen s Unit of Measure-
nent” system (now almost universally recognized as without a rival), is introduced
;hroughout the lessons, and not as an appendix. . , , . ,
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOGRAPHY. —Or, Globe-Making. With each book a set
of map segments is furnished, with which each student may make his own globe by
lollowing the directions given.
RAILROAD GEOGRAPHY. — With a grand commercial map of the United
States, illustrating steamer and railroad routes of travel in the United States, submarine
telegraph lines, &c. Also a “ Practical Tour in Europe.”
MONTEITH AND McNALLY’S SYSTEM.
THREE AND FIVE BOOKS. NATIONAL COURSE.
Monteith’s First Lessons in Geography.
Monteith’s New Manual of Geography.
McNally’s System of Geography.
The new edition of McNally’s Geography is now ready, rewritten throughout by
James Monteith and S. C. Frost. In its new dress, printed from new type, and lllus-
trated with 100 new engravings, it is the latest, most attractive, as well as the most
thoroughly practical book on geography extant.
15
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
GEOGRAPHY — Continued.
INTERMEDIATE OR ALTERNATE VOLUMES IN THE FIVE BOOK SERIES.
Monteith’s Introduction to Geography.
Monteith’s Physical and Political Geography.
1. PRACTICAL OBJECT-TEACHING. — The infant scholar is first introduced
to a picture whence he may derive notions of the shape of the earth, the phenomena of
day and night, the dis ribution of land and water, and the great natural divisions,
which mere words would fail entirely to convey to the untutored mind. Other pictures
follow on the same plan, and the child’s mind is called upon to grasp no idea without
the aid of a pictorial illustration. Carried on to the higher books, this system culmi¬
nates in Physical Geography, where such matters as climates, ocean currents, the
winds, peculiarities of the earth’s crust, clouds and rain, are pictorially explained and
rendered apparent to the most obtuse. The illustrations used for this purpose belong
to the highest grade of art.
2 . CLEAR, BEAUTIFUL, AND CORRECT MAPS. — In the lower num¬
bers the maps avoid unnecessary detail, while respectively progressive and affording
the pupil new matter for acquisition each time he approaches in the constantly en¬
larging circle the point of coincidence with previous lessons in the more elementary
books. In the Physical and Political Geography the maps embrace many new and
striking features. One of the most effective of these is the new plan for displaying on
each map the relative sizes of countries not represented, thus obviating much confu¬
sion which has arisen from the necessity of presenting maps in the same atlas drawn
on different scales. The maps of “McNally” have long been celebrated for their
superior beauty and completeness. This is the only school-book in which the attempt
to make a complete atlas also clear and distinct, has been successful. The map coloring
throughout the series is also noticeable. Delicate and subdued tints take the place of
the startling glare of inharmonious colors which too frequently in such treatises dazzle
the eyes, distract the attention, and serve to overwhelm the names of towns and the
natural features of the landscape
3 . THE VARIETY OF MAP-EXERCISE. — Starting each time from a dif¬
ferent basis, the pupil in many instances approaches the same fact 110 less than six
times, thus indelibly impressing it upon his memory. At the same time, this system is
not allowed to become wearisome, the extent of exercise on each subject being grad'
uated by its relative importance or difficulty of acquisition.
4 . THE CHARACTER AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE DESCRIP¬
TIVE TEXT. — The cream of the science has been carefully culled, unimportant
matter rejected, elaboration avoided, and a brief and concise manner of presentation
cultivated. The orderly consideration of topics has contributed greatly to simplicity
Due attention is paid to the facts in history and astronomy which are inseparably con¬
nected with and important to the proper understanding of geography, and suck only
are admitted on any terms. In a word, the National System teaches geography as a
science, pure, simple, and exhaustive.
5 . ALWAYS UP TO THE TIMES. — The authors of these books, editorially
speaking, never sleep. No change occurs in the boundaries of countries or of counties,
no new discovery is made, or railroad built, that is not at once noted and recorded, and
the next edition of each volume carries to everv school-room the new order of things.
6 . FORM OF THE VOLUMES AND MECHANICAL EXECUTION.
— The maps and text are no longer unnaturally divorced in accordance with the time-
honored practice of making text-books on this subject as inconvenient and expensive as
possible. On the contrary, all map questions are to be found on the page opposite the
map itself, and each book is complete in one volume. The mechanical execution is
unrivalled. Paper, printing, and binding are everything that could be desired.
7 . MAP-DRAWING. — In 1869 the system of map-drawing devised by Frofessor
Jerome Allen was secured exclusively for this series. It derives its claim to original¬
ly and usefulness from the introduction of a fixed unit of measurement applicable to
every map. The principles being so few, simple, and comprehensive, the subject of
map-drawing is relieved of all practical difficulty. (In Nos. 2 , 2 *, and 3, and published
separately.)
8 . ANALOGOUS OUTLINES.—At the same time with map-drawing was also
Introduced (in No. 2 ) a new and ingenious variety of Object Lessons, consisting of a
tomparison of the outlines of countries with familiar objects pictorially represented.
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
BARNES’S NEW GEOGRAPHY.
Barnes’s Elementary Geography. Sm. 4to. Cloth. 96 pp.
Barnes’s Complete Geography. Quarto. Cloth. 140
pages. 320 maps and illustrations.
The object in view, while making this series of books, was not so much cheapness ns
perfection, which is after all the truest economy.
They give all the instruction in geography which it is necessary to teach. From an
artistic point of view they are marvellously beautiful books, and furnish the rising gem
eration with instruments of education far in advance of anything hitherto produced.
The Elementary Geography is based upon the principle of teaching by observa¬
tion, and is adapted to primary grades.
The Complete Geography is adapted to the intermediate and higher gradc-s. It
contains physical, descriptive, commercial, and industrial descriptions of the earth’s
surface.
From the New England Journal of
Education.
“ These two books form a series of un¬
equalled beauty and perfection in the style
and artistic execution of the numerous
illustrations, maps, and also in the typo¬
graphical work. It is like looking through
a portfolio of art sketches to examine and
note the variety, beauty, and appropriate¬
ness of the illustrations of these two
books. We fail to find one illustration
that does not teach its proper lesson-in its
connection with the descriptive text of
the books. Too high praise can hardly be
given to these geographies in the depart¬
ment of design and execution of the maps
and illustrations. Fortunate is the edu¬
cational author wdio has such artistic
talent at his command, and special credit
is due to the art department of the pub¬
lishers of these books. But we are aware
that perfection in the mere mechanical
preparation of books is not the highest
test of their merit and practical usefulness
as school text-books.
“ Turning to examine the methods of
instruction adopted in this series of geog¬
raphy, we find a recognition, not only of
the best pedagogical principles of teaching,
but an application of the correct laws of
culture in methods that give these books
their true position in the front rank of
practical school books. In the elementary
book Mr. Monieith leads the young learner
to look at things around him and learn of
them, to observe, examine, discover, in¬
quire. Beginning at the school grounds
the pupils are led to study for themselves
their own town, city, county, state, coun¬
try, continent, and the world. The ad¬
mirably graded lessons are presented in a
natural, easy, conversational style, calcu¬
lated to develop the reasoning powers, as
well as to stimulate the individual efforts
of pupils to help themselves. We espe¬
cially commend to the attention of teach¬
ers of primary schools the foot-notes, the
writing exercises with language lessons,
teaching by means of journeys and
voyages, etc., which are found in the
Elementary Booh.
“ In the Complete Book we find the ac¬
complished author has continued the ob¬
servational and deductive methods, begin¬
ning with facts, which are used wisely as
stepping-stones to advanced knowledge.
The physical features are attractively
presented in their relation to the industries
of the world. The illuminated pictures
of the hemispheres, showing the earth as
in a painting or on a relief globe ; the races
of men in colors, showing features, com¬
plexions, costumes, etc. ; the trans-conti¬
nental views, — panoramas of the conti¬
nents from ocean to ocean, — teaching, at
a glance, the physical features; and the
admirable maps, with the names of
principal places engraved in boldfaced
letters ; comparative area, comparative
latitude and extent, comparative tempera¬
ture, comparative time of day throughout
the world, is shown by means of clock
dials, — also the standard time : elevations
of surface are shown by sectional views
under the maps and the small physical
charts, showing the products, seaports,
highlands, lowlands, etc-, of the earth.
These are matures of the Complete Book
worthy of special mention and commen¬
dation. The language lessons and written
exercises furnish valuable and interesting
topical reviews.
“ In examining these books, it seems to
us that both author and publishers have
vied with each other to make this two-
book series of geography as near perfect as
a study of correct principles and method*
of teaching, the use of artistic skill in illus¬
trations and maps, the style and arrange¬
ment of type, and good paper and tastetul
binding could secure. The books are a
credit to American skill and taste. W e
commend them to school officers and
teachers for examination and use.”
*
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
GEOGRAPHY — Continued.
Monteith’s Boys’ and Girls’ Atlas of the World.
Showing all the political divisions of the world, with map-drawing and written exer¬
cises, or imaginary voyages, commercial routes, principal products, comparative areas
and populations, height of mountains, length of rivers, highlands, and lowlands. 16
full-page, finely colored maps. 40 pages. Small quarto.
The maps show all that is needful for the study of geography, besides the courses of
rivers and oceanic currents, comparative time by clock faces, standard time, profile
maps, comparative latitude and extent, comparative area, comparative temperature,
highlands and lowlands, principal products, rate of speed on rail or steamship. Parties
ularly valuable as a text-book where oral teaching is attempted.
Monteith’s Old Physical Geography.
The cry of “ Too much of Text-Books,” so frequently heard, is most happily answered
by this exceedingly valuable little work, entitled “Monteith’s Physical Geography.”
Within a convenient-sized volume (54 pp. quarto) the author here presents all of Physi¬
cal Geography that the majority of classes can possibly find time to pursue.
The kindred sciences hitherto unnecessarily combined with this branch of study —
adding far more to the size and price of the textbooks than to their value — are in this
work either very materially cut down or wholly eliminated. The book is admirably
illustrated, coutaining over sixty very practical cuts, and a sufficient number of finely
colored Maps. Its arrangement is excellent, paper, type, binding, etc., fully in keeping
with its other advantages, and its price so moderate that it is brought within the reach
of all grades of schools.
Monteith’s New Physical Geography.
Owing to the great progress made in physical science during the past few years, the
publishers of Monteith’s Physical Geography liaA r e deemed it necessary to prepare a
new volume which shall embrace the more recent results of modern research in this field.
The great popularity enjoyed by Monteith’s Physical Geography during the past twenty-
five years warrants the assertion that the volume now presented will prove a most
valuable addition to the geographical works of Professor Monteitli, which have since
their publication been recognized as standards.
In presenting Monteith’s New Physical Geography, the publishers desire to call the
attention of educators and school boards to the following points : —
It embraces all of the recent discoveries in Physiography, Hydrography, Meteorology,
Terrestrial Magnetism, and Vulcanology.
In the mechanical execution of its pages it is unsurpassed by any text-book of the
kind ever published.
The maps and charts have been compiled from original sources, and therefore com¬
prise the latest discoveries pertaining to geographical science.
While the easy style, graphic description, and the topical arrangement of subjects
adapt it especially for use in grammar schools, it will be found equally adapted for use
in high and normal schools. Concluding each chapter is a brief resume of the main facts
presented therein, a feature that will commend itself to every live teacher and pupil.
Many of the chapters contain much new matter that has never before appeared in any
text-book. As examples of this may be mentioned the subject of Terrestrial Magnetism,
in the preparation of which the author has had access to the records of the U.'S. Mag¬
netic Observatory, through the courtesy of Professor Marcus Baker,U.S C. & G.S.
The subject of Volcanoes lias been compiled from the observations of Professor Judd,
who is the recognized leading authority on this subject.
The chapters on River and Ocean Hydrography embrace many new and interesting
facts brought to light, by the new surveys of the U.S. Engineer Corps, and by Commander
Bartlett, U.S.N. Those pertaining to Ocean Currents are especially important.
The subject of Meteorology contains much new information. The Law of Storms is
the most complete exposition of the subject that has ever been jubiished in a
text-book.
Not the least instructive feature of the volume is the Record of Recent Geographical
Discoveries , which contains a brief account of the explorations of De Long, Nordenskjold,
Schwatka, Greely, and Shufeldt.
It contains 144 pages, 125 illustrations, and 15 colored maps.
18
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
MATHEMATICS.
DAVIES’S COMPLETE SERIES-
ARITHMETIC.
Davies’ Primary Arithmetic.
Davies’ Intellectual Arithmetic.
Davies’ Elements of Written Arithmetic.
Davies’ Practical Arithmetic.
Davies’ University Arithmetic.
TWO-BOOK SERIES.
First Book in Arithmetic, Primary and Mental.
Complete Arithmetic.
ALGEBRA.
Davies’ New Elementary Algebra.
Davies’ University Algebra.
Davies’ New Bourdon’s Algebra.
GEOMETRY.
Davies’ Elementary Geometry and Trigonometry.
Davies’ Legendre’s Geometry.
Davies’ Analytical Geometry and Calculus.
Davies’ Descriptive Geometry.
Davies’ New Calculus.
MENSURATION.
Davies’ Practical Mathematics and Mensuration.
Davies’ Elements of Surveying.
Davies’ Shades, Shadows, and Perspective.
MATHEMATICAL SCIENCE.
Davies’ Grammar of Arithmetic.
Davies’ Outlines of Mathematical Science.
Davies’ Nature and Utility of Mathematics.
Davies’ Metric System.
Davies & Peck’s Dictionary of Mathematics.
20
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
DAVIES’ SERIES — CoTiti/Tiucd.
THE NEW SURVEYING.
Van Amringe’s Davies’ Surveying.
By Charles Davies, LL.D., author of a Full Course of Mathematics. Revised by J,
Howard Van Amringe, A.m’, Fh.D., Professor of Mathematics in Columbia College
566 pages. 8vo. Full sheep.
Davies’ Surveying originally appeared as a text-book for the use of the United States
Military Academy at West Point. It proved acceptable to a much wider held, and
underwent changes and improvements, until the author’s final revision, and has remained
the standard work on the subject for many yeai’s.
In the present edition, 1883, while the admirable features which have hitherto com¬
mended the work so highly to institutions of learning and to practical surveyors have
been retained, some of the topics have been abridged in treatment, and some enlarged.
Others have been added, and the whole has been arranged in the order of progressive
development. A change which must prove particularly acceptable is the transformation
of the article on mining-surveying into a complete treatise, in which the location of
claims on the surface, the latest and best methods of underground traversing, &c., the
calculation of ore-reserves, and all that pertains to the work of the mining-surveyor,
are fully explained and illustrated by practical examples. Immediately on the publica¬
tion of this edition it was loudly welcomed in all quarters. A letter received as we
write, from Prof. R. C. Carpenter, of the Michigan State Agricultural College, says:
“ I am delighted with it. I do not know of a more complete work on the subject, and
I am pleased to state that it is filled with examples of the best methods of modern
practice. We shall introduce it as a text-book in the college course.” This is a fair
specimen of the general reception.
Mathematical Almanac and Annual
says :—
“ Davies is a deservedly popular author,
and his mathematical works are text¬
books in many of the leading schools and
colleges.”
Van Nostrand's Eclectic Engineering Maga¬
zine says :—
“We find in this new work all that can
be asked for in a text-book. If there is a
better work than this on Surveying, either
for students or surveyors, our attention
has not been called to it.”
THE NEW LEGENDRE.
Van Amringe's Davies’ Legendre.
Elements of Geometry and Trigonometry. By Charles Davies, LL.D. Revised (18851
by Prof. J. H. Van Amringe of Columbia College. New pages. 8vo. Full leather.
The present edition of the Legendre is the result of a careful re-examination of the
work, into which have been incorporated such emendations in the way of greater clear¬
ness of expression or of proof as could be made without altering it in form or substance.
Practical exercises are placed at the end of the several books, and comprise additional
theorems, problems, and numerical exercises upon the principles of the Book or Books
preceding. They will be found of great service in accustoming students, early in and
throughout their course, to make for themselves practical application of geometric
principles, and constitute, in addition, a large and excellent body of review and test
questions for the convenience of teachers. The Trigonometry and mensuration have
been carefully revised throughout ; the deduction of principles and rules has been sim¬
plified ; the discussion of the several cases which arise in the solution of ti’iangles,
plane and spherical, has been made more full and clear ; and the whole has, in definition,
demonstration, illustration, &c., been made to conform to the latest and best methods.
It is believed that in clearness and precision of definition, in general simplicity and
rigor of demonstration, in the judicious arrangement of practical exercises, in orderly
and logical development of the subject, and in compactness of form, Davies’ Legendre
is superior to any work of its grade for the general training of the logical powers ol
pupils, and for their instruction in the gi’eat body of elementary geometric truth.
The work has been printed from entirely new plates, and no care has been spared to
ikake it a model of typographical excellence.
21
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
DAVIES’S NATIONAL COURSE
OF MATHEMATICS.
ITS RECORD.
In claiming for this series the first place among American text-books, of whatever
class, the publishers appeal to the magnificent record which its volumes have earned
during the thirty-five years of Dr. Charles Davies’s mathematical labors. The unremit¬
ting exertions of a life-time have placed the modern series on the same proud eminence
among competitors that each of its predecessors had successively enjoyed in a course of
constantly improved editions, now rounded to their perfect fruition,—for it seems
almost that this science is susceptible of no further demonstration.
During the period alluded to, many authors and editors in this department have
started into public notice, and, by borrowing ideas and processes original with Dr. Davies,
have enjoyed a brief popularity, but are now almost unknown. Many of the series of
to-day, built upon a similar basis, and described as “ modern books,” are destined to a
similar fate; while the most far-seeing eye will find it difficult to fix the time, on the
basis of any data afforded by their past history, when these books will cease to increase
and prosper, and fix a still firmer hold on the affection of every educated American.
One cause of this unparalleled popularity is found in the fact that the enterprise of the
author did not cease with the original completion of his books. Always a practical
teacher, he has incorporated in his text-books from time to time the advantages of every
improvement in methods of teaching, and every advance in science. During all the
years in which he has been laboring he constantly submitted liis own theories and those
of others to the practical test of the class-room, approving, rejecting/or modifying
them as the experience thus obtained might suggest. In this way he has been able
to produce an almost perfect series of class-books, in which every department of
mathematics has received minute and exhaustive attention.
Upon the death of Dr. Davies, which took place in 1876, his work was immediately
taken up by his former pupil and mathematical associate of many years. Prof. W. G.
Peck, LL.D., of Columbia College. By him, with Prof. J. H. Van AmrInge, of Columbia
College, the original series is kept carefully revised and up to the times.
Davies’s System is the acknowledged National Standard for the United
States, for the following reasons : —
1 st. It is the basis of instruction in the great national schools at West Point and
Annapolis.
2d. It has received the quasi indorsement of the National Congress.
3d. It is exclusively used in the public schools of the National Capital.
4th. The officials of the Government use it as authority in all cases involving mathe¬
matical questions.
5th. Our great soldiers and sailors commanding the national armies and navies were '
educated in this system. So have been a majority of eminent scientists in this country
All these refer to “Davies ” as authority.
6 th. A larger number of American citizens have received their education from this
than from any other series.
7th. The series has a larger circulation throughout the whole country than any othei;
being extensively used in every State in the Union.
22
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
DAVIES AND PECK’S ARITHMETICS.
OPTIONAL OR CONSECUTIVE.
The best thoughts of these two illustrious mathematicians are combined in the
following beautiful works, which are the natural successors of Davies’s Arithmetics,
sumptuously printed, and bound in crimson, green, and gold: —
Davies and Peck’s Brief Arithmetic.
Also called the “ Elementary Arithmetic.” It is the shortest presentation of the sub¬
ject, and is adequate for all grades in common schools, being a thorough introduction to
practical life, except for the specialist.
At first the authors play with the little learner for a few lessons, by object-teaching
and kindred allurements ; but he soon begins to realize that study is earnest, as he
becomes familiar with the simpler operations, and is delighted to find himself master of
important results.
The second part reviews the Fundamental Operations on a scale proportioned to
the enlarged intelligence of the learner. It establishes the General Principles and
Properties of Numbers, and then proceeds to Fractions. Currency and the Metric
System are fully treated in connection with Decimals. Compound Numbers and Re¬
duction follow, and finally Percentage with all its varied applications.
An Index of words and principles concludes the book, for which every scholar and
most teachers will be grateful. How much time has been spent in searching for a half-
forgotten definition or principle in a former lesson !
Davies and Peck’s Complete Arithmetic.
This work certainly deserves its name in the best sense. Though complete, it is not,
like most others which bear the same title, cmnbersume. These authors excel in clear,
lucid demonstrations, teaching the science pure and simple, yet not ignoring convenient
methods and practical applications.
For turning out a thorough business man no other work is so well adapted. He will
have a clear comprehension of the science as a whole, and a working acquaintance
with details which must serve him well in al 1 emergencies. Distinguishing features of
the book are the logical progression of the subjects and the great variety of practical
problems, not puzzles, which are beneath the dignity of educational science. A clear-
minded critic has said o' Dr. Peck’s work that it is free from that juggling with
numbers which some authors falsely call “ Analysis.” A series of Tables for converting
ordinary weights and measures into the Metric System appear in the later editions.
PECK’S ARITHMETICS.
Peck’s First Lessons in Numbers.
This book begins with pictorial illustrations, and unfolds gradually the science of
numbers. It noticeably simplifies the subject by developing the principles of addition
and subtraction simultaneously ; as it does, also, those of multiplication and division.
Peck’s Manual of Arithmetic.
This book is designed especially 1 or those who seek sufficient instruction to carry
them successfully through practical life, but have not time for extended study.
Peck’s Complete Arithmetic.
This comjdetes the series but is a much briefer book than most of the complete
arithmetics, and is recommended not only for what it contains, but also for what is
omitted.
It may be said of Dr. Peck’s books more truly than of any other series published, that
they are clear and simple in definition and rule, and that superfluous matter of every
kind has been faithfully eliminated, thus magnifying the working value of the book
and saving unnecessary expense of time and labor.
23
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
BARNES’S NEW MATHEMATICS.
In this series Joseph Ficklin, Ph. D., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy
in the University of Missouri, lias combined all the best and latest results of practical
and experimental teaching of arithmetic with the assistance of many distinguished
mathematical authors. ,
___ 4
I
Barnes’s Elementary Arithmetic.
Barnes’s National Arithmetic.
These two works constitute a complete arithmetical course in tvjo books.
They meet the demand for text-books that will help students to acquire the greatest
amount of useful and practical knowledge of Arithmetic by the smallest expenditure of
time, labor, and money. Nearly every topic in Written Arithmetic is introduced, and its
principles illustrated, by exercises in Oral Arithmetic. The free use of Equations ; the
concise method of combining and treating Properties of Numbers; the treatment of
Multiplication and Division of Fractions in two cases, and then reduced to one; Can¬
cellation by the use of the vertical line, especially in Fractions, Interest, and Proportion;
the brief, simple, and greatly superior method of working Partial Payments by the
“ Time Table ” and Cancellation ; the substitution of formulas to r. great extent for
rules; the full and practical treatment of the Metric System, &c., indicate their com¬
pleteness. A variety of methods and processes for the same topic, which deprive the
pupil of the great benefit of doing a part of the thinking and labor for himself, have
been discarded. The statement of principles, definitions, rules, &c., is brief and simple.
The illustrations and methods are explicit, direct, and practical. The great number
and variety of Examples embody the actual business of the day. The very large
amount of matter condensed in so small a compass has been accomplished by econo¬
mizing every line of space, by rejecting superfluous matter and obsolete terms, and by
avoiding the repetition of analyses, explanations, and operations in the advanced topics
which have been used in the more elementary parts of these books.
AUXILIARIES.
For use in district schools, and for supplying a text-book in advanced work for
classes having finished the course as given in the ordinary Practical Arithmetics, the
National Arithmetic has been divided and bound separately, as follows : —
Barnes’s Practical Arithmetic.
Barnes’s Advanced Arithmetic.
In many schools there are classes that for various reasons never reach beyond
Percentage. It is just such cases where Barnes's Practical Arithmetic will answer a
good purpose, at a price to the pupil much less than to buy the complete book. On the
other hand, classes having finished the ordinary Practical Arithmetic can proceed
with the higher course by using Barnes's Advanced Arithmetic.
For primary schools requiring simply a table book, and the earliest rudiments
forcibly presented through object-teaching and copious illustrations, we have
prepared
Barnes’s First Lessons in Arithmetic,
which begins with the most elementary notions of numbers, and proceeds, by simpls
steps, to develop all the fundamental principles of Arithmetic.
Barnes’s Elements of Algebra.
, This work, as its title indicates, is elementary in its character and suitable for us^
v) in such public schools as give instruction in the Elements of Algebra ; (2) in institu¬
tions of learning whose courses of study do not include Higher Algebra ; (3) in schools
whose object is to prepare students for entrance into our colleges and universities.
This book will also meet the wants of students of Physics who require some knowledge of
24
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
Algebra. The student’s progress in Algebra depends very largely upon the proper treat-
nieut of the four Fundamental Operations. The terms Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication,
and Division in Algebra have a wider meaning than in Arithmetic, and these operations
have been so defined as to include their arithmetical meaning ; so that the beginner
is sir*ply called upon to enlarge his views of those fundamental operations. Much
attention has been given to the explanation of the negative sign, in order to remove the
well-known difficulties in the use and interpretation of that sign. Special attention is
here called to “ A Short Method of Removing Symbols of Aggregation,” Art. 76. On
account of their importance, the subjects of Factoring, Greatest Common Divisor, and
Least Common Multiple have been treated at greater length than is usual in elementary
works. In the treatment of Fractions , a method is used which is quite simple, and,
at the same time, more general than that usually employed. In connection with Radical
Quantities the roots are expressed by fractional exponents, for the principles and rules
applicable to integral exponents may then be used without modification. The Equation
is made the chief subject of thought in this work. It is defined near the beginning,
and used extensively in every chapter. In addition to this, four chapters are devoted
exclusively to the subject of Equations. All Proportions are equations, and in their
treatment as such all the difficulty commonly connected with the subject of Proportion
disappears. The chapter on Logarithms will doubtless be acceptable to many teachers
who do not require the student to master Higher Algebra before entering upon the
study of Trigonometry.
HIGHER MATHEMATICS.
Peck’s Manual of Algebra.
Bringing the methods of Bourdon within the range of the Academic Course.
Peck’s Manual of Geometry.
By a method purely practical, and unembarrassed by the details which rather confuse
than simplify science.
Peck’s Practical Calculus.
Peck’s Analytical Geometry.
Peck’s Elementary Mechanics.
Peck’s Mechanics, with Calculus.
The briefest treatises on these subjects now published. Adopted by the great Univer¬
sities : Yale, Harvard, Columbia, Princeton, Cornell, &c.
Macnie’s Algebraical Equations.
Serving as a complement to the more advanced treatises on Algebra, giving special
attention to the analysis and solution of equations with numerical coefficients.
Church’s Elements of Calculus.
Church’s Analytical Geometry.
Church’s Descriptive Geometry. With plates. 2 vois.
These vohnnes constitute the “ West Point Course ” in their several departments
Prof. Church was long the eminent professor of mathematics at West Point Military
Academy, and his works are standard in all the leading colleges.
Courtenay’s Elements of Calculus.
A standard work of the very' highest grade, presenting the most elaborate attainable
survey of the subject.
Hackley’s Trigonometry.
With applications to Navigation and Surveying, Nautical and Practical Geometry,
and Geodesy.
25
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
GEOGRAPHY — Continued.
From Supt. J. C. Gilson, Oakland, Cal.
“I am pleased,delighted, charmed with
it. It is an ideal work.”
From Prof. J. W. Ferrel, Bloomsburg,
Penn.
“ It is a charming work. Beautifully
illustrated and embracing all the depart,
ments that ought to be treated.”
From C. B. Metcalf, Worcester, Mass.
“ Beautiful outside and inside. Typog«
rapliy unsurpassed. The text the best
feature. Synopsis at the end of each
chapter a striking point of excellence.”
MAP-DRAWING.
Monteith’s Map-Drawing Made Easy.
A neat little book of outlines and instructions, giving the “corners of States” in
suitable blanks, so that maps can be drawn by unskilful hands from any atlas ; with
instructions for written exercises or compositions on geographical subjects, and com¬
parative geography".
Monteith’s Manual of Map-Drawing (Allen’s System).
The only consistent plan, by which all maps are drawn on one scale. By its use
much time may be saved, and much interest and accurate knowledge gained.
Monteith’s Map-Drawing and Object Lessons.
The last-named treatise, bound with Mr. Monteith’s ingenious system for commit¬
ting outlines to memory by means of pictures of living creatures and familiar objects.
Thus, South America resembles a dog’s head ; Cuba, a lizard; Italy, a boot; France, a
coffee-pot; Turkey, a turkey, &c., &c.
Monteith’s Colored Blanks for Map-Drawing.
A new aid in teaching geography, which will be found especially useful in recitations,
reviews, and examinations. The series comprises any section of the world required.
Monteith’s Map-Drawing Scale.
A ruler of wood, graduated to the “Allen fixed unit of measurement.”
WALL MAPS.
Monteith’s Pictorial Chart of Geography.
The original drawing for this beautiful and instructive chart was greatly admired in
the publisher’s “ exhibit ” at the Centennial Exhibition of 1876. It is a picture of the
earth’s surface with every natural feature displayed, teaching also physical geography,
and especially the mutations of water. The uses to which man puts the earth and its
treasures and forces, as Agriculture, Mining, Manufacturing, Commerce, and Transpor¬
tation, are also graphically portayed, so that the young learner gets a realistic idea of
“ the world we live in,” which weeks of book study might fail to convey.
Monteith’s School Maps, 8 Numbers.
The “School Series” includes the Hemispheres (2 maps), United States, North
America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa. Price, $2.50 each.
Each map is 28 x 34 inches, beautifully colored, has the names all laid down, and is
substantially mounted on canvas with rollers.
Monteith’s Grand Maps, 8 Numbers.
The “Grand Series” includes the Hemispheres (1 map), North America, United
States, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, the World on Mercator’s Projection, and
Physical Map of the World. Price, $5.00 each. Size, 42 x 52 inches, names laid down,
colored, mounted, &c.
Monteith’s Sunday-School Maps.
Including a map of Paul’s gravels ($5.00), one of Ancient Canaan ($3.00^, and Mod¬
ern Palestine ($3.00), or Palestine and Canaan together ($5.00).
THL NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
A
Brief History of
States.
the United
This is probably the most original school-book pub
lished for many years, in any department. A few of it?
claims are the following : —
1. Brevity. — The text is complete for grammar school
or intermediate classes, in 290 12mo pages, large type.
It may readily be completed, if desired, in one term o(
study.
2 . Comprehensiveness. — Though so brief, this book
contains the pith of all the wearying contents of the larger
manuals, and a great deal more than the memory usually
retains from the latter.
3. Interest has been a prime consideration. Small
books have heretofore been bare, full oi dry statistics, unattractive. This one is
charmingly written, replete with anecdote, and brilliant with illustration.
4 Proportion of Events. — It is remarkable for the discrimination with which
the different portions of our history are presented according to their importance. Thus
the older works, being already large books when the Civil W ar took place, give it less
space than that accorded to the Revolution. „ ... ,
e Arrangement. — In six epochs, entitled respectively, Discovery and Settlement,
the Colonies, the Revolution, Growth of States, the Civil War, and Current Events.
6. Catch Words. — Each paragraph is preceded by its leading thought in promi¬
nent tvpe, standing in the student’s mind for the whole paragraph.
7. Key Notes. — Analogous with this is the idea of grouping battles, &c., about
some central event, which relieves the sameness so common in such descriptions, and
renders each distinct by some striking peculiarity of its own.
8 . Foot-Notes. —These are crowded with interesting matter that is not strictly a
part of history proper. They may be learned or not, at pleasure. They are ceitain
in any event to be read. . . „ ,, . „
9/ Biographies of all the leading characters are given in full in foot-notes.
10. Maps. — Elegant and distinct maps from engravings on copper-plate, and beauti¬
fully colored, precede each epoch, and contain all the places named.
11 . Questions are at the back of the book, to compel a more independent use of the
text. Both text and questions are so worded that the pupil must give intelligent
answers in his own words. “ Yes” and “ No ” will not do.
BARNES’S ONE-TERM HISTORY
SERIES.
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
HISTORY — Continued.
12. Historical Recreations.— These are additional questions to test the student’s
knowledge, in review, as: “What trees are celebrated in our history?” “When
did a fog save our army?” “What Presidents died in office?” “When was the
Mississippi our western boundary?” “Who said, ‘I would rather be right than
President ’ ? ” &c.
13. The Illustrations, about seventy in number, are the work of our best artists
id engravers, produced at great expense. They are vivid and interesting, and mostly
upon subjects never before illustrated in a school-book.
14. Dates —Only the leading dates are given in the text, and these are so associated
as to assist the memory, but at the head of each page is the date of the event first
mentioned, and at the close of each epoch a summary of events and dates.
13 . The Philosophy of History is studiously exhibited, the causes and effects
of events being distinctly traced and their inter-connection shown.
16. Impartiality. — All sectional, partisan, or denominational views are avoided.
Facts are stated after a careful comparison of all authorities without the least prejudice
or favor.
17. Index. — A verbal index at the close of the book perfects it as a work of reference.
It will be observed that the above are all particulars in which School Histories have
been signally defective, or altogether wanting. Many other claims to favor it shares in
common with its predecessors.
TESTIMONIALS.
From Prof. Wm. F. Allen, State Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.
“Two features that I like very much
are the anecdotes at the foot of the page
and the 1 Historical Recreations’ in the
Appendix. The latter, I think, is quite
a new feature, and the other is very well
executed.”
From Hon. Newton Bateman, Superin¬
tendent Public Instruction , Illinois.
“ Barnes’s One-Term History of the
United States is an exceedingly attrac¬
tive and spirited little book, its claim
to several new and valuable features seems
well founded. Under the form of six well-
defined epochs, the history of the United
States is traced tersely, yet pithily, from
the earliest times to the present day. A
good map precedes each epoch, whereby
the history and geography of the period
may be studied together, ns thy always
should be. The syllabus of each paragraph
is made to stand in such bold relief, by
the use of large, heavy type, as to be of
much mnemonic value to the student. The
book is written in a sprightly and pi¬
quant style, the interest never flagging
from beginning to end, — a rare and diffi¬
cult achievement in works of this kind.”
From Hon. Abner J. Phipps, Superin¬
tendent Schools, Lewiston, Maine.
“Barnes’s History of the United States
has been used for several years in the
Lewiston schools, and has proved a very
satisfactory work. I have examined the
new edition of it.”
From Hon. R. K. Buchell, City Superin¬
tendent Schools, Lancaster , Pa.
“ It is the best history of the kind I have
ever seen.”
From T. J. Charlton, Superintendent
Public Schools, Vincennes, Ind.
“We have used it here for six years,
and it has given almost perfect satisfac¬
tion. . . . The notes in fine print at the
bottom of the pages are of especial value.”
From Prof. Wm. A. Mowrv, E. C
School, Providence, R. /.
“ Permit me to express my high appre¬
ciation of your book. I wish all text¬
books for the young had equal merit.”
From Hon. A. M. Keiley, City Attorney,
Late Mayor, and President of the School
Board, City of Richmond , Va.
“ I do not hesitate to Amlunteer to you
the opinion that Barnes’s History is en¬
titled to the preference in almost every
respect that distinguishes a good school¬
book. . . . The narrative generally exhibits
the temper of the judge; rarely, if ever,
of the advocate.”
.28
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
Primary History of the United States.
For Intermediate Classes. 12mo 225 pages. Beautifully illustrated. A fitting
introduction to Barnes’s Historical Series.
From Prof. C. W. Richards, High
School, Oswego, N Y.
I think it an admirable book ”
From, D. Beach, :f Gibbons & B ach, 20
West 09th Street, N.Y. City.
“The little History is to me a very
attractive book.”
From Prof. C. D. Larkins, Fayette¬
ville, A. Y.
“ It is the only Primary History that I
ever saw that I liked.”
From Prot. L R. Hopkins, Weedsport,
N.Y.
“ I think Barnes’s Primary History by
far the best I ever saw.”
From Prof. Richard H. Lewis, Kingston
College, N.C.
“ The subject matter is very good, and
shows remarkable condensing power in
the author.”
From Prof. Edward Smith, Supt. of
Schools, Syracuse, N. Y.
“ It is a very interesting and pretty
book. I should like it very much for
supplementary reading. ”
From General Horatio C. Kino,
Brooklyn, N Y.
“I am especially pleased with the new
Frimary History, which is remarkably
concise and interesting and free from
partisan bias.”
From Prof S. G. Harris, Dryclen, N.Y.
“ Having a few days’ vacation I found
time to carefully examine the Primary
History you sent me and am highly de¬
lighted with it. It will satisfy a iong-
felt want.”
From the New England Jour¬
nal of Education.
“The book is printed in
the best type, or. the finest
paper, and is illustrated in
the most superb, even sump¬
tuous manner. Any child
who studies this exceptional¬
ly beautiful little book will
unavoidably have a higher
regard for his country on
account of the superior and
charming character of the
book.”
From Mr. H. H. Smith, Brest. Board of
Education, Vineyard Haven, Mass.
“ I should think you would feel proud
of the work. ”
From Dr Eugene Bouton, Albany, N. Y.
“ I must congratulate every one on the
publication of this beautiful History.”
From Prof. H. C. Talmadge, ICood-
bury, Ct.
“ It is the book that I have been look¬
ing for quite a long time.”
From Prof. L C. Foster. Supt. of
Schools, Ithaca, N. Y.
“ It is indeed a very beautiful book,
and it seems to me well adapted for use
in the lower grammar grades.”
From Prof. F. H. Hall, Sinclairville,
N.Y.
“This History is the best thing of the
kind I have ever seen How it could be
improved I do not see ”
From Prof. J. C Cruikshank, Supt. oj
Education, rassaic Co., N.J.
“ It is the book needed, and will fill the
gap of early historical instruction in the
schools.”
From Prof. S. R Morse, Supt. of Educa¬
tion, Ailant.c Co , N.J.
“ I have examined Barnes’s Primary
History of the United States and find it
just what we have wanted in our schools. ”
From H. E. Perkins, School Commissioner,
Livingston Co., N.Y.
“I ‘liiuk it the best Primary United
States History that I ever examined, and
will recommend it to my teachers.”
From The Indiana School
Journal.
“ This book, comprised in
225 pages, is what its title
indicates, primary in matter
and manner of treatment, and
not simply an abbreviation
of a large book. By not at¬
tempting everything there is
space for a fuller discussion
of the more important points.
The author has clearly dis¬
criminated between simplicity
of style and simple thought”
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
A Brief History of An¬
cient Peoples.
With an account of their monuments,
literature, and manners. 340 pages
12 mo. Profusely illustrated.
In this work the political history,
which occupies nearly, if not all,
the ordinary school text, is condensed
to the salient and essential facts, in
order to give room for a clear outline
of the literature, religion, architecture,
character, habits, &c., of each nation.
Surely it is as important to know some¬
thing about Tlato as all about Csesar,
and to learn how the ancients wrote
their books as how they fought their
battles.
The chapters on Manners and Cus¬
toms and the Scenes in Real Life repre¬
sent. the people of history as men and
women subject to the same wants, hopes
and fears as ourselves, and so bring the distant past near to us. The Scenes, which are
intended only for reading, are the result of a careful study of the unequalled collections of
monuments in the London and Berlin Museums, of the ruins in Rome and Pompeii, and
of the latest authorities on the domestic life of ancient peoples. Though intentionally
written in a semi-romantic style, they are accurate pictures of what might have occurred,
and some of them are simple transcriptions of the details sculptured in Assyrian
alabaster or painted on Egyptian walls.
29
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
HISTORY — Continued.
The extracts made from the sacred books of the East are not specimens of their style
and teachings, but only gems selected often from a mass of matter, much of which would
be absurd, meaningless, and even revolting. It has not seemed best to cumber a book
like this with selections conveying no moral lesson.
The numerous cross-references, the abundant dates in parenthesis,the pronunciation
of the names in the Index, the choice reading references at the close of each general
subject, and the novel Historical Recreations in the Appendix, will be of service to
teacher and pupil alike.
Though designed primarily for a text-book, a large class of persons —general readers,
who desire to know something about the progress of historic criticism and die recent
discoveries made among the resurrected monuments of the East, but have no leisure to
read the ponderous volumes of Brugsch, Layard, Grote, Mommsen, and lime — w r ili find
this volume just what they need.
From Homer B. Sprague, Ileal Master
Girls’ High School, West Newton St., Hos¬
tel, Mass.
“ I beg to recommend in strong terms
the adoption of Barnes’s ‘History of
Ancient Peoples ’ as a text-book. It is
about as nearly perfect as could be
hoped for. The adoption would give
great relish to the study of Ancient
History.”
HE Brief History of France.
S > By the author of the “ Briaf United States,”
_ with ah the attractive features of that popu-
(lar work (which see) and new ones of its own.
It is believed that the History of France
has never before been presented in such
-A brief compass, and this is effected without
sacrificing one particle of interest. The book
reads like a romance, and, while drawing the
student by an irresistible fascination to his
task, impresses the great outlines indelibly upon the memory.
30
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS\
HISTORY — Continued.
Barnes’s Brief History of Mediaeval and Modern
Peoples.
The success of the History of Ancient Peoples was immediate and great. A History
of Mediaeval and Modern History, upon the same plan, was the natural sequence.
Those teachers who used the former will be glad to know that the latter book is now
ready, and classes can go right on without changing authors.
The New York School Journal says : —
“ The tine-print notes . . . work a field
not widely developed until Green’s His¬
tory of English People appeared, relating
to the description of real, every-day life
of the people.”
This work distinguishes between the period of the world’s history from the Fall of
Rome (a.d. 4761 to the Capture of Constantinople (a.d. 1453), — about one thousand
years, called “Middle Ages,” — and the period from the end of the fifteenth century to
the present time. It covers the entire time chronologically and by the order of events,
giving one hundred and twenty-two fine illustrations and sixteen elaborate maps.
[Illustration from Barnes’s Brief - History
Series.]
The subject has never before been so in¬
terestingly treated in brief compass. The Po¬
litical History of each nation is first givni,
then the Manners and Customs of the. People.
A better idea of the growth of civilization and
the changes in the condition of mankind can¬
not be found elsewhere. The book is fitted
for private reading, as well as schools.
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS ,
HISTORY — Continued.
Barnes’s Brief General History.
Comprising Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern Peoples.
The special features of this book are as follows: —
The General Hist ary contains 600 pages. Of this amount, 350 pages are devoted to
the political history, and 250 pages to the civilization, manners, and customs, etc. The
latter are in separate chapters, and if the time of the teacher is limited, may be omitted.
The class can thus take only the political portion when desired. The teacher will have,
however, the satisfaction of knowing that, such is the fascinating treatment of the
civilization, literature, etc., those chapters will be carefully read by the pupils ; and, on
the principle that knowledge acquired from love alone is the most vivid, will probably
be the best-remembered part of the book. This portion of the book is therefore all
clear gain.
The Black-board Analysis. See p. 314 as an example of this marked feature.
The exquisite Illustrations, unrivalled by any text-book. See pp. 9,457, and 582, as
samples of the 240 cuts contained in this beautiful work.
The peculiar Summaries, and valuable lists of Reading References. See p. 417 .
The numerous and excellent colored Maps. These are so lull as to answer for an
extensive course of collateral reading, and are consequently useful for reference outside
of class-work. See pp. 299 and 317-
The Scenes in Real Life, which are the result of a careful study of the collections
and monuments in the London, Paris, and Berlin museums, and the latest authorities
upon the domestic life of the people of former times. See pp. 3S-39. This scene —
a Lord of the IVth Dynasty — is mainly a transcription of details to be found painted
on the walls of Egyptian tombs.
The chapters on Civilization tint attempt to give some idea of the Monuments, Arts,
Literature, Education, and Manners and Customs of the different nations. See pp 171,
180, 276, 279, 472, and 514.
The admirable Genealogical Tables interspersed throughout the text. See pp. 340
and 494.
The Foot-Notes that are packed full of anecdotes, biographies, pleasant information,
and suggestive comments. As an illustration of these, take the description of the
famous sieges of Haarlem and Leyden, during the Dutch War of Independence, pp. 446
and 448.
The peculiar method of treating Early Roman History, by putting in the text the
facts as accepted by critics, and, in the notes below, the legends. See pp. 205-6.
The exceedingly useful plan of running collateral history in parallel columns, as for
example on p. 361, taken fr mi the Hundred Years’ War.
The Historical Recreations, so valuable in arousing the interest of a class. See
p. xi from the Appendix.
The striking opening of Modern History on pp. 423-4.
The interesting Style, that sweeps the reader along as by the fascination of a novel.
The pupil insensibly acquires a taste for historical reading, and forcets the tediousness
of the ordinary lesson in perusing the thrilling story of the past. Hoc pn. 25 1 -2.
Special attention is called to the chapter entitled Rise of Modern Nations, —-
England, France, and Germany. The characteristic feature in the mediaeval history of
each of these nations is made prominent. (%.) After the Four Conquests of England,
the central idea in the growth of that people was the Development of Constitutional
Liberty, (h.) l'lie feature of French history was the conquest of the great vassals by
the king, the triumph of royalty over feudalism, and the final consolidation of the
scattered fiefs into one grand monarchy, (c.) The characteristic of German history was
disunion, emphasized by the lack of a central capital ci-y. and by an elective rather than
an hereditary monarchy. The struggle of the Crown with its powerful vassals was the
same as in France, bur developed no national sentiment, and ended in the establishment
of semi-independent dukedoms.
These three thoughts furnish the beginner with as many threads on which to string
the otherwise isolated facts of this bewildering period.
32
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
HISTORY — Continued.
Barnes’s Brief History of Greece.
204 pages. 12nio. Clotli. Illustrated.
This book was primarily prepared for Ihe Chafauqua Course in History, but is we’i
adapted to the wants or all students. It consists of the chapters on the Political History
and Civilization of Greece, in Barnes’s “Brief Hisiorv of Ancient Peoples,” and a number
of appropriate selections from the works of such historians as Curtins, Grote, Thirlwall,
Smith, Fyffe, Cox, Schmitz, Rawlinson, and others. By the study of this little book the
reader will gain a very substantial idea of the history of Greece, in whose career the rest of
tin* world is so largely concerned.
SHEPARD’S SYSTEMATIC MINERAL RECORD.
With a synopsis of terms and chemical reactions used in describing minerals T re-
pared for instructors and students in mineralogy. Adapted to any text-book. 24 pages
of descriptive and explanatory text, and 75 blank pages for record
34
Kummer’s Epitome of English History.
With Questions for Examination. By S. Agnes Kummer, revised by A. M. Chandler of
the Edgeworth School, Baltimore, Md. 150 pages. l2mo. Clotli.
The success of the first edition of this book m several schools leads to its reproduction
with additions. It is not design.' d to supersede the study of more comprehensive text-books
ot history, but merely to act as a. handmaiden to them, by presenting in a condensed form
the principal facts and dates.
[Specimen Illustration from Barnes’s Brief-History Senes.]
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
GENERAL HISTORY.
Monteith’s Youth’s History of the United Stales.
A History of the United States for beginners. It is arranged upon the catechetical plan,
with illustrative maps and engravings, review questions, dates in parentheses (that their
study may be optional with the younger class of learners), and interesting biographical
sketches of all persons who have been prominently identified with the history of our
country.
Willard’s United States. School and University Editions.
The plan of this standard work is chronologically exhibited in front ol the title page.
The maps and sketches are found useful assistants to the memory ; and dates, usually
so difficult to remember, are so systematically arranged as in a great degree to obviate
the difficulty. Candor, impartiality, and accuracy are the distinguishing features of
the narrative portion.
Willard’s Universal History. New Edition.
The most valuable features of the “ United States ” are reproduced in this. The
peculiarities of the work are its great conciseness and the prominence given to the
chronological order of events. The margin marks each successive era with great dis.
tinctness, so that the pupil retains not only the event but its time, and thus fixes the
order of history firmly and usefully in his mind. Mrs. Willard’s books are constantly
revised, and at all times written up to embrace important historical events of recent
date. Professor Arthur Gilman has edited the last twenty-five years to 1S82.
Lancaster’s English History.
By the Master of the Stoughton Grammar School, Boston. The most practical of the
“brief books.” Though short, it is not a bare and uninteresting outline, but contains
enough of explanation and detail to make intelligible the cause and effrct of events.
Their relations to the history and development of the American people is made specially
prominent.
Willis’s Historical Reader.
Being Collier’s Great Events of History adapted to American schools. This rare
epitome of general history, remarkable for its charming style and judicious selection of
events on which the destinies of nations have turned, has been skilfully manipulated
by Professor Willis, with as few changes as would bring the United States into its proper
position in the historical perspective. As reader or text-book it has few equals and no
superior.
Berard’s History of England.
By an authoress well known for the success of her History of the United States.
The social life of the English people is felicitously interwoven, as in fact, with the civil
and military transactions of the realm.
Ricord’s History of Rome.
Possesses the charm of an attractive romance. The fables with which this history
abounds are introduced in such a way as not to deceive the inexperienced, while adding
materially to the value of the work as a reliable index to the charactei and institutions,
as well as the historv of the Roman people.
35
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
HISTORY — Continued.
Hanna’s Bible History.
The only compendium of Bible narrative which affords a connected and chronological
view of the important events there recorded, divested of all superfluous detail.
Summary of History; American, French, and English.
A well-proportioned outline of leading events, condensing the substance of the more
extensive text-books in common use into a series of statements so brief, that every
word may be committed to memory, and yet so comprehensive that it presents an
accurate though general view of the whole continuous life of nations.
Marsh’s Ecclesiastical Historv,
Affording the History of the Church in all ages, with accounts of the pagan world
during the biblical periods, and the character, rise, and progress of all religions, as well
as the various sects of the worshippers of Christ. The work is entirely non-sectarian,
though strictly catholic. A separate volume contains carefully prepared questions for
class use.
Mill’s History of the Ancient Hebrews.
With valuable Chronological Charts, prepared by Professor Edwards of N. Y. This
is a succinct account of the chosen people of God to the time of the destruction of
Jerusalem. Complete in one volume.
Topical History Chart Book.
By Miss Ida P. Whitcomb. To be used in connection with any History , Ancient or
Modern, instead of the ordinary blank book for summary. It embodies the names of
contemporary rulers from the earliest to the present time, with blanks under each, in
which the pupil may write the summary of the life of the ruier.
Gilman’s First Steps in General History.
A “suggestive outline” of rare compactness. Each country is treated by itself, and
the United States receive special attention. Frequent maps, contemporary events in
tables, references to standard works for fuller details, and a minute Index constitute
the “ Illustrative Apparatus.” From no other work that we know of can so succinct a
view of the world’s history be obtained. Considering the necessary limitation of space,
the style is surprisingly vivid, and at times even ornate. In all respects a charming,
though not the less practical, text-book.
Baker’s Brief History of Texas.
Dimitry’s History of Louisana.
Alison’s Napoleon First.
The history of Europe from 17S8 to 1815. By Archibald Alison. Abridged by Edward
S. Gould. One vol., 8vo, with appendix, questions, and maps. 550 pages.
Lord’s Points of History,
The salient points in the history of the world arranged catechetically for class use or
for review and examination of teacher or pupil. By John Lord, LL.D. 12mo, 300
pages.
Carrington’s Battle Maps and Charts of the American
Revolution.
Topographical Maps and Chronological Charts of every battle, with 3 steel portraits
of Washington. 8vo, cloth.
Condit’s History of the English Bible.
For theological and historical students this book has an intrinsic value. It gives the
history of all the English translations down to the present time, together with a careful
review of their influence upon English literature and language.
36
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
DRAWING.
BARNES’S POPULAR DRAWING SERIES.
Based upon the experience of the most successful teachers of drawing in the United
States.
The Primary Course, consisting of a manual, ten cards, and three primary
drawing hooks, A, B, and <J.
Intermediate Course. Four numbers and a manual.
Advanced Course. Four numbers and a manual.
Instrumental Course. Four numbers and a manual.
'Hie Intermediate, Advanced, and Instrumental Courses are furnished either in book
or card form at the same prices. The books contain the usual blanks, with the unusual
advantage of opening from the pupil,— placing the copy directly in front and above
the blank, thus occupying but little desk-room. The cards are in the end more econom¬
ical than the books, if used in connection with the patent blank folios that accompany
this series.
The cards are arranged to be bound (or tied) in the folios and removed at pleasure.
The pupil at the end of each number has a complete book, containing only his own
work, while the copies are preserved and inserted in another folio ready for use in the
next class.
Patent Blank Folios. No. 1. Adapted to Intermediate Course. No. 2. Adapted
to Advanced anu Instrumental Courses.
ADVANTAGES OF THIS SERIES.
The Plan and Arrangement. — The examples are so arranged that teachers and
pupils can see, at a glance, how they are to be treated and where they are to be copied.
In this system, copying and designing do not receive all the attention. The plan is
broader in its aims, dealing with drawing as a branch of common-school instruction,
awd giving it a wide educational value.
Correct Methods. — In this system the pupil is led to rely upon himself, and not
upon delusive mechanical aids, as printed guide-marks, &c.
One of the principal objects of any good course in freehand drawing is to educate the
eye to estimate location, form, and size. A system which weakens the motive or re¬
moves the necessity of thinking is false in theory and ruinous in practice. The object
should be to educate, not cram ; to develop the intelligence, not teach tricks.
Artistic Effect- — The beauty of the examples is not destroyed by crowding the
pages with useless and badly printed text. The Manuals contain all necessary
instruction.
Stages of Development.—Many of the examples are accompanied by diagrams,
showing the different stages of development.
Lithographed Examples. — The examples are printed in imitation of pencil
drawing (,not in hard, black lines) that the pupil’s work may resemble them.
One Term’s Work. — Each book contains what can be accomplished in an average
term, and no more. Thus a pupil finishes one book before beginning another.
Quality — not Quantity. — Success in drawing depends upon the amount of thought
exercised by the pupil, and not upon the large number of examples drawn.
Designing. — Elementary design is more skilfully taught in this system than by
any other. In addition to the instruction given in the books, the pupil will find printed
on the insides of the covers a variety of beautiful patterns.
Enlargement and Reduction. — The pi’actice of enlarging and reducing from
copies is not commenced until the pupil is well advanced in the course and therefore
better able to cope with this difficult feature in drawing.
Natural Forms. — This is the only course that gives at convenient intervals easy
and progressive exercises in the drawing of natural forms.
Economy. — By the patent binding described above, the copies need not be thrown
aside when a book is filled out, but are preserved in perfect condition for future use.
The blank books, only, will have to be purchased after the first introduction, thus effect¬
ing a saving of more than half in the usual cost of drawing-books.
Manuals for Teachers. —The Manuals accompanying this series contain practical
instructions for conducting drawing in the class-room, with definite directions for draw¬
ing each of the examples in the books, instructions for designing, model and object
drawing, drawing from natural forms, &c.
38
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
DRAWING — Continued.
Chapman’s American Drawing-Book.
The standard American text-book and authority in all branches of art. A compilation
of art principles. A manual for the amateur, and basis of study for the professional
artist. Adapted for schools and private instruction.
Contents. — “ Any one who can Learn to Write can Learn to Draw.” — Primary In¬
struction in Drawing. — Rudiments of Drawing the Human ’ Head. — Rudiments in
Drawing the Human Figure. — Rudiments of Drawing. — The Elements of Geometry.
Perspective. —Of Studying and Sketching from Nature. —Of Painting. —Etching and
Engraving. — Of Modelling. — Of Composition. — Advice to the American Art-Studenc.
The work is of course magnificently illustrated with all the original designs.
Chapman’s Elementary Drawing-Book.
A progressive course of practical exercises, or a text-book for the training of the
eye and hand. It contains the elements from the larger work, and a copy should be in
‘ the hands of every pupil ; while a copy of the “ American Drawing-Book,” named above,
should be at hand for reference by the class.
Clark’s Elements of Drawing.
A complete course in this graceful art, from the first rudiments of outline to the
finished sketches of landscape and scenery.
Allen’s Map-Drawing and Scale.
This method introduces a new era in map-drawing, for the following reasons : 1. It
is a system. This is its greatest merit. — 2 . It is easily understood and taught. —
3. The eye is trained to exact measurement by the use of a scale. — 4. By no special
effort of the memory, distance and comparative size are fixed in the mind. — 5. It dis¬
cards useless construction of lines.— 6 . It can be taught by any teacher, even though
there may have been no previous practice in map-drawing.—7. Any pupil old enough
to study geography can learn by this system, in a short time, to draw accurate maps.
— 8 . The system is not the result of theory, but comes directly from the school-room.
It has been thoroughly and successfully tested there, with all grades of.pupils. —9. It
is economical, as it requires no mapping plates. It gives the pupil the ability of rapidly
drawing accurate maps.
FINE ARTS.
Hamerton’s Art Essays (Atlas Series) : —
No. 1. The Practical Work of Painting.
With portrait of Rubens. 8 vo. Paper covers.
No. 2. Modern Schools of Art-
Including American, English, and Continental Painting. 8 vo. Paper covers.
Huntington’s Manual of the Fine Arts.
A careful manual of instruction in the history of art, up to the present time.
Boyd’s Karnes’ Elements of Criticism.
The best edition of the best work on art and literary criticism ever produced It
English.
Benedict’s Tour Through Europe.
A valuable companion for any one wishing to visit the galleries and sights of tbe
continent of Europe, as well as a charming book of travels.
Dwight’s Mythology.
A knowledge of mythology is necessary to an appreciation of ancient art.
Walker’s World’s Fair.
The industrial and artistic display at the Centennial Exhibition.
40
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
BOOK-KEEPING.
Powers’s Practical Book-keeping.
Powers’s Blanks to Practical Book-keeping.
A Treatise on Book-keeping, for Public Schools and Academies. By Millard R.
Powers, M. A. This work is designed to impart instruction upon the science of accounts,
as applied to mercantile business, and it is believed that more knowledge, and that, too,
of a more practical nature, can be gained by the plan introduced in this work, than by
any other published.
Folsom’s Logical Book-keeping.
Folsom’s Blanks to Book-keeping.
This treatise embraces the interesting and important discoveries of Professor Folsom (of
the Albany “ Bryant & Stratton College ”), the partial enunciation of which in lectures
and otherwise has attracted so much attention in circles interested in commercial
education.
After studying business phenomena for many years, he has arrived at the positive
laws and principles that underlie the whole subject of accounts ; finds that the science
is based in value as a generic term : that value divides into two classes with varied
species ; that all the exchanges of values are reducible to nine equations ; and that all
the results of all these exchanges are limited to thirteen in number.
As accounts have been universally taught hitherto, without setting out from a radical
analysis or definition of values, the science has been kept in great obscurity, and been
made as difficult to impart as to acquire. On the new theory, however, these obstacles
are chiefly removed. In reading over the first part of it, in which the governing laws
and principles are discussed, a person with ordinary intelligence will obtain a fair con¬
ception of the double-entry process of accounts. But when he comes to study thoroughly
these laws and principles as there enunciated, and works out the examples and memo¬
randa which elucidate the thirteen results of business, the student will neither fail in
readily acquiring the science as it is, nor in becoming able intelligently to apply it in
the interpretation of business.
Smith and Martin’s Book-keeping.
Smith and Martin’s Blanks.
Tli is work is by a practical teacher and a practical book-keeper. It is of a thoroughly
popular class, and will be welcomed by every one who loves to see theory and practice
combined in an easy, concise, and methodical form.
The single-entry portion is well adapted to supply a want felt in nearly all other
treatises, which seem to be prepared mainly for the use of wholesale merchants ;
leaving retailers, mechanics, farmers, &c., who transact the greater portion of the
business of the country, without a guide. The work is "also commended, on this
account, for general use in young ladies’ seminaries, where a thorough grounding
in the simpler form of accounts will be invaluable to the future housekeepers of the
nation.
The treatise on double-entry book-keeping combines all the advantages of the
most recent methods with the utmost simplicity of application, thus affording the
pupil all the advantages of actual experience in the counting-house, and giving a
clear comprehension of the entire subject through a judicious course of mercantile
transactions.
PRACTICAL BOOK-KEEPING.
Stone’s Post-Office Account Book.
By Mio.ah H. Stone. For record of Box Rents and Postages. Three si".es always in
stock. 64, 10S, and 204 pages.
INTEREST TABLES.
Brooks’s Circular Interest Tables.
To calculate simple and compound interest for any amount, from 1 cent to $1,000, at
current rates from 1 day to 7 years.
41
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
DR. STEELE’S ONE-TERM SERIES,
IN ALL THE SCIENCES.
Steele’s 14-Weeks Course in Chemistry.
Steele’s 14-Weeks Course in Astronomy.
Steele’s 14-Weeks Course in Physics.
Steele’s 14-Weeks Course in Geology.
Steele’s 14-Weeks Course in Physiology.
Steele’s 14-Weeks Course in Zoology.
Steele’s 14-Weeks Course in Botany.
Our text-books in these studies are, as a general thing, dull and uninteresting.
They contain from 400 to COO pages of dry facts and unconnected details. They abound
in that which the student cannot learn, much less remember. The pupil commences
the study, is confused by the tine print and coarse print, and neither knowing exactly
what to learn nor what to hasten over, is crowded through the single term generally
assigned to each branch, and frequently comes to the close without a definite and exact
idea of a single scientific principle.
Steele’s “ Fourteen-Weeks Courses ” contain only that which every well-informed per¬
son should know, while all that which concerns only the professional scientist Is omitted.
The language, is clear, simple, and interesting, and the illustrations bring the subject
within the range of home life and daily experience. They give such of the general
principles and the prominent facts as a pupil can make familiar as household words
within a single term. The type is large and open ; there is no fine print to annoy;
the cuts are copies of genuine experiments or natural phenomena, and are of fine
execution.
In fine, by a system of condensation peculiarly his own, the author reduces each
branch to the limits of a single term of study, while sacrificing nothing that is essential,
and nothing that is usually retained from the study of the larger manuals in common
use. Thus the student has rare opportunity to economize his time, or rather to employ
that which he has to the best advantage.
A notable feature is the author’s charming “ style,” fortified by an enthusiasm over
his subject in which the student will not fail to partake. Believing that Natural
Science is full of fascination, he has moulded it into a form that attracts the attention
and kindles the enthusiasm of the pupil.
The recent editions contain the author’s “Practical Questions” on a plan never
before attempted in scientific text-books. These are questions as to the nature and
cause of common phenomena, and are not directly answered in the text, the design
being to test and promote an intelligent use of the student’s knowledge of the foregoing
principles.
Steele’s Key to all His Works.
. This work is mainly composed of answers to the Practical Questions, and solutions of the
problems, in the author’s celebrated “ Fourteen-Weeks Courses ” in the several sciences,
with many hints to teachers, minor tables, &c. Should be on every teacher’s desk.
Prof. J. Dorman Steele is an indefatigable student, as well as author, and his books
have reached a fabulous circulation. It is safe to say of his books that they have
accomplished more tangible and better results in the class-room than any other ever
offered to American schools, and have been translated into more languages for foreign
schools. They are even produced in raised type for the blind.
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
NATURAL SCIENCE — Continued.
TEMPERANCE PHYSIOLOGY.
Steele’s Abridged Physiology, for Common Schools.
Steele’s Hygienic Physiology, for High Schools.
With especial reference to alcoholic drinks and narcotics. Adapted from “ Fourteen
Weeks’ Course in Human Physiology.” By J. Borman Steele, Ph.D. Edited and
endorsed for the use of schools (in accordance with the recent legislation upon this
subject) by the Department of Temperance Instruction of the W. C. T. U. of the Uuited
States, under the direction of Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, superintendent.
This new work contains all the excellent and popular features that have given Dr.
Steele’s Physiology so wide a circulation. Among these, are the following:
1. Colored Lithographs to illustrate the general facts in Physiology.
2. Black-board Analysis at the beginning of eacli chapter. These have been
found of great service in class-work, especially in review and examination.
3. The Practical Questions at the close of each chapter. These are now too well
known to require any explanation.
4 The carefully prepared sections upon the Physiological Action of Alcohol,
Tobacco, Opium, etc. These are scattered through the book as each organ is treated.
I his subject is examined from a purely scientific stand-point, and represents the latest
teachings at home and abroad. While there is no attempt to incorporate a temperance
lecture in a school-book, yet the terrible effects of these “ Stimulants and Narcotics,”
especially upon the young, are set forth all the more impressively, since the lesson is
taught merely by the presentation of facts that lean toward no one’s prejudices and
admit of no answer or escape.
5. Throughout the book, there are given, in text and foot-note, experiments that can
be peiformed by teacher and pupil, and which, it is hoped, will induce some easy dis-
sections to be made in every class, and lead to that constant reference of all subjects to
Nature herself, which is so invaluable in scientific study.
notes' 6 co ^ ec ^ on recen t discoveries, interesting facts, etc., in numerous foot-
7. The unusual space given to the subject of Ventilation, which is now attracting
so much attention throughout the country. °
. ^ lie , tex ti s brou S llfc U P to the level of the new Physiological views. The division
into short, Pithy paragraphs; the bold paragraph headings ; the clear, large type • the
simple presentation of each subject; the interesting style that begets in every child a
love of the study, and the beautiful cuts, each having a full scientific description and
nomenclature, so as to present the thing before the pupil without cumbering the text
with the dry details, — all these indicate the work of the practical teacher, and will be
appreciated m every school-room.
Child’s Health Primer.
For the youngest scholars. 12mo, cloth, illustrated.
Hygiene for Young People.
Prepared under the supervision of Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, Superintendent of th«
Department of Scientific Instruction of the “ Women’s National Christian Temperanc*
Union.” Examined and approved by A. B. Palmer, M.D., University of Michigan.
Jarvis’s Elements of Physiology.
Jarvis’s Physiology and Laws of Health.
The only books extant which approach this subject with a proper view of the true
object of teaching Physiology in schools, viz., that scholars may know how to take care
of their own health. In bold contrast with the abstract Anatomies, which children
learn as they would Greek or Latin (and forget as soon), to discipline the mind, are these
text-books, using the science as a secondary consideration, and only so far as is neces¬
sary for the comprehension of the lavas of health.
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
THE NEW GANOT.
Introductory Course of Natural Philosophy.
This book was originally edited from Ganot’s “ Popular Physics,” by William G.
Peck, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Columbia College, and of
Mechanics iu the School of Mines. It has recently been i-evised by Levi S. Bur¬
bank, A. M., late Principal of Warren Academy, Woburn, Mass., and James 1. Hanson,
A.M., Principal of the High School, Woburn, Mass.
Of elementary works those of M. Ganot stand pre-eminent, not only as popular
treatises, but as thoroughly scientific expositions of the principles of Physics. His
“ Traite de Physique ” has not only met with unprecedented success in France, but has
been extensively used in the preparation of the best works on Physics that have been
issued from the American press.
In addition to the “Traite de Physique,” which is intended for the use of colleges
and higher institutions of learning, M. Ganot published this more elementary work,
adapted to the use of schools and academies, in which he faithfully preserved the
prominent features and all the scientific accuracy of the larger work. It is charcter-
ized by a well-balanced distribution of subjects, a logical development of scientific
principles, and a remarkable clearness of definition and explanation. In addition, it is
profusely illustrated with beautifully executed engravings, admirably calculated to
convey to the mind of the student a clear conception of the principles unfolded. Their
completeness and accuracy are such as to enable the teacher to dispense with much of
the apparatus usually employed in teaching the elements of Physical Science.
After several years of great popularity the American publishers have brought this
important book thoroughly up to the times. The death of the accomplished educator,
Professor Burbank, took place before he had completed his work, and it was then
taken in hand by his friend, Professor Hanson, who was familiar with his plans, and
iias ably and satisfactorily brought the work to completion.
The essential characteristics and general plan of the book have, so far as possible,
been retained, but at the same time many parts have been entirely rewritten, much
new matter added, a large number of new cuts introduced, and the whole treatise
thoroughly revised and brought into harmony with the present advanced stage of sci¬
entific discovery.
Among the new features designed to aid in teaching the subject-matter are the
summaries of topics, which, it is thought, will be found very convenient in short
reviews.
As many teachers prefer to prepare their own questions on the text, and many do not
have time to spend in the solution of problems, it has been deemed expedient to insert
both the review questions and problems at the end of the volume, to be used or not at
the discretion of the instructor.
From the Churchman.
“ No department of science has under¬
gone so many improvements and changes
in the last quarter of a century as that of
natural philosophy. So many and so im¬
portant have been the discoveries and
inventions in every branch of it that
everything seems changed but its funda¬
mental principles. Ganot has chapter
upon chapter upon subjects that were not
so much as known by name to Olmsted ;
and here we have Ganot, first edited by
Professor Peck, and afterward revised by
the late Mr. Burbank and Mr. Hanson. No
elementary works upon philosophy have
been superior to those of Ganot, either as
popular treatises or as scientific exposi¬
tions of the principles of physics, and
his ‘ Traite de Physique’has not only had .
a great success in France, but has been
freely used in this country in the prepa¬
ration of American books upon the sub¬
jects of which it treats. That work was
intended for higher institutions of learn¬
ing, and. Mr. Ganot preparer’ a more
elementary work for schools .and acade¬
mies. It is as scientifically accurate as
the larger work, and is characterized by
a logical development of scientific princi¬
ples, by clearness of definition and expla¬
nation, by a proper distribution of sub¬
jects, and by its admirable engravings.
We here have Ganot’s work enhanced in
value by the labors of Professor Peck and of
Messrs. Burbank and Hanson, and brought
up to our own times. The essential char¬
acteristics of Ganot’s work have been re¬
tained, but much of the book has been
rewritten, and many new cuts have been
introduced, made necessary by the prog¬
ress of scientific discovery. The short
reviews, the questions on the text, and
the problems given for solution are desir¬
able additions to a work of this kind, and
will give the book increased popularity. ,J
45
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
FAMILIAR SCIENCE.
Norton & Porter’s First Book of Science.
Sets forth the principles of Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, Chemistry, Physiology,
and Geology, on the catechetical plan for primary classes an 1 beginners.
Chambers’s Treasury of Knowledge.
Progressive lessons upon —first, common things which lie most immediately around
us, and first attract the attention of the young mind; second, common objects from tlitj
mineral, animal, and vegetable kingdoms, manufactured articles, and miscellaneous
substances ; third, a systematic view of nature under the various sciences. May be
used as a reader or text-book.
Monteith’s Easy Lessons in Popular Science.
This book combines within its covers more attractive features for the study of science
by children than any other book published. It is a reading book, spelling‘book, com¬
position book, drawing book, geography, history, book on botany, zoology, agricul¬
ture, manufactures, commerce, and natural philosophy. All these subjects are presented
in a simple and effective style, such as would be adopted by a good teacher on an
excursion with a class. The class are supposed to be taking excursions, with the help
of a large pictorial chart of geography, which can be suspended before them in the
school-room. A key of the chart is inserted in every copy of the book. With thia
book the science of common or familiar things can be taught to beginners.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
Norton’s First Book in Natural Philosophy.
Peck’s Elements of Mechanics.
A suitable introduction to Bartlett’s higher treatises on Mechanical Philosophy, and
adequate in itself for a complete academical course.
Bartlett’s Analytical Mechanics.
Bartlett’s Acoustics and Optics.
A complete system of Collegiate Philosophy, by Prof. W. H. C. Bartlett, of West
Point Military Academy.
Steele’s Physics.
Peck’s Ganot.
GEOLOGY.
Page’s Elements of Geology.
A volume of Chambers’s Educational Course. Practical, simple, and eminently
calculated to make the study interesting.
Steele’s Geology.
CHEMISTRY.
Porter’s First Book of Chemistry.
Porter’s Principles of Chemistry.
The above are widely known as the productions of one of the most eminent scientific
men of America. The extreme simplicity in the method of presenting the science, while
exhaustively treated, has excited universal commendation.
Gregory’s Chemistry (Organic and Inorganic). 2 vols.
The science exhaustively treated. For colleges and medical students.
Steele’s Chemistry.
47
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
NATURAL SCIENCE — Continued.
BOTANY.
Wood’s Object-Lessons in Botany.
Wood’s American Botanist and Florist.
Wood’s New Class-Book of Botany.
The standard text-books of the United States in this department. In style they are
simple, popular, and lively ; in arrangement, easy and natural; in description, graphic
and scientific. The Tables for Analysis are reduced to a perfect system. They include
the flora of the whole Unibid States east of the Rocky Mountains, and are well adapted
to the regions west.
Wood’s Descriptive Botany.
A complete flora of all plants growing east of the Mississippi River.
Wood’s Illustrated Plant Record.
A simple form of blanks for recording observations in the field.
Wood’s Botanical Apparatus.
A portable trunk, containing drying prefls, knife, trowel, microscope, and tweezers,
and a copy of Wood’s “ Plant Record,” — the collector’s complete outfit.
Willis’s Flora of New Jersey.
The most useful book of reference e<er published for collectors in all parts of the
country. It contains also a Botanical Directory, with addresses of living American
botanists.
Young’s Familiar Lessons in Botany.
Combining simplicity of diction with some degree of technical and scientific knowl¬
edge, for intermediate classes. Specially adapted for the Southwest.
Wood & Steele’s Botany.
AGRICULTURE.
Pendleton’s Scientific Agriculture.
A text-book for colleges and schools ; treats of the following topics: Anatomy and
Physiology of Plants ; Agricultural Meteorology ; Soils as related to Physics ; Chemistry
of the Atmosphere ; of Plants ; of Soils ; Fertilizers and Natural Manures ; Animal Nu¬
trition, &c. By E. M. Pendleton, M. D., Professor of Agriculture in the University of
Georgia.
From President A. D. White, Cornell
University.
“ Dear Sir: I have examined your
* Text-book of Agricultural Science,’ and it
seems to me excellent in view of the pur¬
pose it is intended to serve. Many of
your chapters interested me especially,
and all parts of the work seem to combine
scientific instruction with practical infor¬
mation in proportions dictated by sound
common sense.”
From President Robinson, of Brown
University.
“ It is scientific in method as well as in
matter, comprehensive in plan, natural
and logical in order, compact and lucid in
its statements, and must be useful both as
a text-book in agricultural colleges, and
as a hand-book for intelligent planters and
farmers.”
48
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
NATURAL SCIENCE — Continued.
ASTRONOMY.
Peck’s Popular Astronomy.
By Win. G. Peck, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics, Mechanics, and Astron*
omy in Columbia College. 12mo. Cloth. 330 pages.
Professor Peck has here produced a scientific work in brief form for colleges, acade¬
mies, and high schools. Teachers who do not want an elementary work — like Steele’s
Astronomy, for instance — will find what they want in this book. Its discussion of the
Stars, Solar System, Earth, Moon, Sun and Planets, Eclipses, Tides, Calendars, Planets
and Satellites, Comets and Meteors, &c., is full and satisfactory. The illustrations are
numerous and very carefully engraved, so the student can gain an accurate comprehen¬
sion of the things represented. Professor Peck is wonderfully clear and concise in his
style of writing, and there is nothing redundant or obscure in this work. It is intended
for popular as well as class use, and accordingly avoids too great attention to mathe¬
matical processes, which are introduced in smaller type than the regular text. For
higher schools this astronomy is undoubtedly the best text-book yet published.
Willard’s School Astronomy.
By means of clear and attractive illustrations, addressing the eye in many cases by
analogies, careful definitions of all necessary technical terms, a careful avoidance of
verbiage and unimportant matter, particular attention to analysis, and a general adop¬
tion of the simplest methods, Mrs. Willard has made the best and most attractive
elementary Astronomy extant.
McIntyre’s Astronomy and the Globes.
A complete treatise for intermediate classes. Highly approved.
Bartlett’s Spherical Astronomy.
The West Point Course, for advanced classes, with applications to the current wants
of Navigation, Geography, and Chronology.
NATURAL HISTORY.
Carll’s Child’s Book of Natural History.
Illustrating the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, with application to the
arts. For be’ginners. Beautifully and copiously illustrated.
Anatomical Technology. Wilder & Gage.
As applied to the domestic cat- For the use of students of medicine.
ZOOLOGY.
Chambers’s Elements of Zoology.
A complete and comprehensive system of Zoology, adapted for academic instruction,
presenting a systematic view of the animal kingdom as a portion of external nature.
ROADS AND RAILROADS.
Gillespie’s Roads and Railroads.
Tenth Edition. Edited by Cady Staley, A.M., C.E. 464 pages. 12mo. Cloth.
This book has long been and still is the standard manual of the principles and prac¬
tice of Road-making, comprising the location, construction, and improvement of roads
(common, macadam, paved, plank, &c.) and railroads. It was compiled by W»
Gillespie, LL.D., C.E., of Union College.
49
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
PHONOGRAPHY.
Eames’s Light-Line Short-Hand.
This book presents a practical phonetic system, without shading. It is prepared t«
meet the requirements of business, corresponding, and verbatim reporting. It is
especially adapted to the use of schools and colleges. It gives a vocabulary of more
than 4,500 words and phrases. The illustrations are very numerous, and both in
variety and quantity are unprecedented. There are 58 pages of engraved short-hand
matter for practice-copies. The book is highly endorsed, and the system is the best
and shortest known.
COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
Brookfield’s First Book in Composition.
Making the cultivation of this important art feasible for the smallest child. By a
new method, to induce and stimulate thought.
Boyd’s Composition and Rhetoric.
This work furnishes all the aid that is needful or can be desired in the various
departments and styles of composition, both in prose and verse.
Day’s Art of Rhetoric.
Noted for exactness of definition, clear limitation, and philosophical development of
subject; the large share of attention given to invention, as a branch of rhetoric, and
the unequalled analysis of style.
Bardeen’s Sentence-Making.
Bardeen’s Shorter Rhetoric.
Bardeen’s Complete Rhetoric.
The plan of this treatise is wholly novel, and is its most characteristic feature.
The author begins with Sentence-Making, which is to rhetoric what carpentry or
masonry is to architecture, — not properly a part of it, but to be absolutely mastered,
so that the architect’s ideas may be carried out with promptness and precision.
This “handicraft,” so to speak, having been acquired, the student is ready to apply
it according to the rules of the art. Where first? He is required to converse almost
constantly, and he has already learned that it is sometimes difficult to converse well.
Let him see that the rules of rhetoric apply primarily to the every-day talk in which
he is engaged, and rhetoric becomes a real thing. Accordingly, the author follows with
& full and familiar treatment of Conversation.
As all must talk, so nearly all must write letters of one kind or another ; and the
second part of the book is devoted to Letter-Writing. In itself this subject is
treated with incisive directness and practical force, business letters receiving special
attention.
With the Essay arises a new necessity, —of formal invention. The author clearly
shows that a distinct part of what is often called “ inspiration ” in writing comes from
hard labor under fixed rules here laid down; that this labor is indispensable even to
respectable writing, and that without this labor no production is worthy to be called
an essay.
The Oration introduces anew feature, — the oral delivery to an audience, with all
the principles of articulation, emphasis, gesture, and other principles usually referred
to elocution as a distinct subject. The discussion of extempore speaking is remarkably
terse and helpful.
Finally comes the Poem, more briefly treated, with the most important directions
&3 to Rhythm and Rhyme.
nere vve have then six distinct parts, — Sentence-Making, Conversation, Letter-
Writing, the Essay, the Oration, and the Poem.
When all this is taken into consideration, the book seems small instead of largey
and we must wonder how so much was got into so little space.
50
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
LITERATURE.
Gilman’s First Steps in English Literature.
The character and plan of this exquisite little text-book may be best understooo m,m
an analysis of its contents : Introduction. Historical Period of Immatni-p 'Fnrriic.i
with Chart; Definition of Terms; Languages of Europe Su ttS ’
English, with Chart; a Chart of Bible to GeS
Reading:. and other aids t,o t.hp s+.nri«n+ * ° F J wume WVj enerai
Cleveland’s Compendiums. 3 vols. 12mo.
English Literature. American Literature.
. tv , English Literature op the XIXth Century.
In thesevolumes are gathered the cream of the literature of the English-speaking
Eenerai reader - Ti,eir —>■><■ — *
Boyd’s English Classics. 6 vols. Cloth. 12mo.
Milton’s Paradise Lost. Thomson’s Seasons
® N ^ GHT U IOUGH ^ s - Pollok’s Course of Time.
Cowper s Task, Table Ialk, &c. Lord Bacon’s Essays.
to the study
Pope’s Essay on Man. IGmo. Paper.
Pope’s Homer’s Iliad.. 32mo. Roan.
the Nature and t Stat1 a of°Ml gr A e , at P °f °l anti ^ u j t y« and the matchless “ Essay on
and parsing." 1 Man, by Alexander Pope, afford superior exercise in literature
POLITICAL ECONOMY.
Champlin’s Lessons on Political Economy.
esseStiaT : rtwlw Previous treatises, being shorter, yet containing everything
found ’ th ** recent < l uestlons ln finance, &c„ which is not elsewhere
51
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
AESTHETICS.
Huntington’s Manual of the Fine Arts 0
A view of the rise and progress of art in different countries, n brief account of the
most eminent masters of art, and an analysis of the principles ol art. It is complete
in itself, or may precede to advantage the critical work of Lord Karnes.
Boyd’s Karnes’s Elements of Criticism.
The best edition of this standard Avork; Avithout the study of which none may be
considered proficient in the science of the perceptions. No other study can be pursued
with so marked an effect upon the taste and refinement of the pupil.
ELOCUTION.
Watson’s Practical Elocution.
A scientific presentment of accepted principles of elocutionary drill, with black¬
board diagrams and full collection of examples for class drill. Cloth. 90 pages, 12mo.
Taverner Graham’s Reasonable Elocution.
Based upon the belief that true elocution is the right interpretation of thought,
and guiding the student to an intelligent appreciation, instead of a merely mechanical
knowledge, of its rules.
Zachos’s Analytic Elocution.
All departments of elocution — such as the analysis of the voice and the sentence,
phonology, rhythm, expression, gesture, &c.—are here arranged for instruction in
classes, illustrated by copious examples.
SPEAKERS.
Northend’s Little Orator.
Northend’s Child’s Speaker.
Two little works of the same grade but different selections, containing simple and
attractive pieces for children under twelve years of age.
Northend’s Young Declaimer.
Northend’s National Orator.
Two A’olumes of prose, poetry, and dialogue, adapted to intermediate and grammar
classes respectively.
Northend’s Entertaining Dialogues.
Extracts eminently adapted to cultivate the dramatic faculties, aa well as entertain.
Oakey’s Dialogues and Conversations.
For school exercises and exhibitions, combining useful instruction.
James’s Southern Selections, for Reading and Oratory
Embracing exclusively Southern literature.
Swett’s Common School Speaker.
Raymond’s Patriotic Speaker.
A superb compilation of modern eloquence and poetry, with original dramatic
exerciaea. Nearly every eminent modem orator is represented.
52
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
MIND.
Mahan’s Intellectual Philosophy.
The subject exhaustively considered. The author lias evinced learning, candor, and
independent thinking.
Mahan’s Science of Logic.
A profound analysis of the laws of thought. The system possesses the merit of being
intelligible and self-consistent. In addition to the author’s carefully elaborated views,
it embraces results attained by the ablest minds of Great Britain, Germany, and France,
in this department.
Boyd’s Elements of Logic.
A systematic and philosophic, condensation of the subject, fortified with additions
from Watts, Abercrombie, Whately, &c.
Watts on the Mind. Edited by Stephen N. Fellows.
The “ Improvement of the Mind,” by Isaac Watts, is designed as a guide fer the
attainment of useful knowledge. As a text-book it is unparalleled ; and the discipline
it affords cannot be too highly esteemed by the educator.
MORALS.
Peabody’s Moral Philosophy.
A short course, by the Professor of Christian Morals, Harvard University, for the
Freshman class and for high schools.
Butler’s Analogy. Hobart’s Analysis.
Edited by Prof. Charles E. West, of Brooklyn Heights Seminary. 228 pages. 16mo.
Cloth.
Alden’s Text-Book of Ethics.
For young pupils. To aid in systematizing the ethical teachings of the Bible, and
point out the coincidences between the instructions of the sacred volume and the sound
conclusions of reason.
Smith’s Elements of Moral Philosophy.
140 pages. 12mo. Cloth. By Wm. Austin Smith, A.M., Ph.lX, Professor of Moral
Philosophy in the Columbia (Tenn.) Athengeum.
This is an excellent book for the use of academies and schools. It is prepared to
meet the wants of a much larger public than has heretofore been reached by works of
this class. The subject is presented in clear and simple language, and will be found
adapted to the comprehension of young pupils, at a time when they particularly need
an insight into the laws which govern the moral world.
Janet’s Elements of Morals.
By Paul Janet. Translated by Mrs. Prof. Corson, of Cornell University.
The Elements of Morals is one of a series of works chiefly devoted to Ethics, and
treats of practical, rather than theoretical morality.
Mr. Janet is too well known that it be necessary to call attention to his excellence
as a moral writer, and it will be sufficient to say that what particularly recommends
the Elements of Morals to educators and students in general is the admirable adap¬
tation of the book to college and school purposes.
Besides the systematic and scholarly arrangement of its parts, it contains series of
examples and illustrations — anecdotic, historical — gathered with rare impartiality
from both ancient and modern writers, and which impart a peculiar life and interest to
the subject.
Another feature of the work is its sound religious basis. Mr. Janet is above all
a religious moralist
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
GOVERNMENT.
Young’s Lessons in Civil Government.
A'comprehensive view of- Government, and abstract of the laws showing the rights,
duties, and responsibilities of citizens.
Mansfield’s Political Manual.
This is a complete view of the theory and practice of the General and State Govern¬
ments, designed as a text-book. The author is an esteemed and able professor of con¬
stitutional law, widely known for his sagacious utterances in the public press.
Martin’s Civil Government.
From, Prof. Geo. B. Emerson, Boston.
“ It is clear and well arranged, and very comprehensive. Whoever reads [it atten¬
tively will understand more fully and satisfactorily than he could have done without
it the history of his own country, and any other. Every young man should study it
before he comes to vote, and it should therefore be a text-book in every High School
and Academy, and a part of the library of every lover of his country.”
From F. P. Conn, Co. Supt. of Schools, Vanderburgh Co., Ind.
“It embraces the essential knowledge of the science, and its arrangement affords
ready references to a contents easily acquired. Am satisfied that no more useful book
could be adopted, especially in the ungraded schools of the country, where libraries
and newspapers are rare.”
Antebellum Constitutions.
A complete collection of State and Federal Constitutions as they stood before the
Civil War of 1861. With an essay on changes made during the reconstruction period,
by Wilmot L. Warren.
PUNCTUATION.
Cocker’s Handbook of Punctuation.
With instructions for capitalization, letter-writing, and proof-reading. Most works
on this subject are so abstruse and technical that the unprofessional reader finds them
difficult of comprehension ; but this little treatise is so simple and comprehensive that
persons of very ordinary intelligence can readily understand and apply its principles.
ANATOMY.
Anatomical Technology as Applied to theDomestic Cat.
An introduction to human, veterinary, and comparative anatomy. A practical work
for students and teachers. 600 pages. 130 figures, and four lithograph plates. By
Burt G. Wilder and Simon H. Gage, Professors in Cornell University.
“ Instructions in the best method of
dissection and study of each organ and
region. ” — American Veterinary Review.
“ A valuable manual, at once author¬
itative in statement and admirable in
method.” — American Journal of Medical
Science.
“ Well adapted to the purpose for whicn
it ha3 been written. ” — Nature.
“The student who will carefully dissect
a few cats according to the rules given in
this book will have a great advantage over
the one who begins his work with the
human body ; and. if he will master the in¬
structions for the various methods of
preparation, he will know more than most
graduates in medicine.” — The Boston
Medical and Surgical Journal
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
MODERN LANGUAGES.
A COM PLETE. COU RSE IN THE GERMAN.
By James H. Worman, A.M., Professor of Modern Languages.
Worman’s First German Book.
Worman’s Second German Book.
Worman’s Elementary German Grammar.
Worman’s Complete German Grammar.
These volumes are designed for intermediate and advanced classes respectively
Though following the same general method with “ Otto ” (that of “ Gaspev ”) our
author differs essentially in its application. He is more practical, more systematic
more accurate, and besides introduces a number of invaluable features which have
never before been combined in a German grammar.
Among other things, it may be claimed for Professor Worman that he has been tht
first to introduce, in an American text-book for learning German, a system of analog and
comparison with other languages. Our best teachers are also enthusiastic about his
methods of inculcating the art of speaking, of understanding the spoken language of
correct, pronunciation ; the sensible and convenient original classification of nouns’fin
four declensions), and of irregular verbs, also deserves much praise. We also note the
use of heavy type to indicate etymological changes in the paradigms and. in the exer¬
cises, the parts which specially illustrate preceding rules.
Worman’s Elementary German Reader.
Worman’s Collegiate German Reader.
The finest and most judicious compilation of classical and standard German literature
Tnese works embrace, progressively arranged, selections from the masterpieces of
Goethe, Schiller, Korner, Seume, Uhland, Freiligratli, Heine, Sclilegel, Holty, Lenau
Wieland Herder Lessing, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Winkelmann, Humboldt Ranke’
Kaumer, Menzel, Gervinus, &c., and contain complete Goethe’s “Iphmenie ” Schiller’s
“Jungfrau;” also, for instruction in modern conversational German’ Benedix’s
“ Eigensinn
- —-
There are, besides, biographical sketches of each author contributing notes explan¬
atory and philological (after the text), grammatical references to all leading grammars
as well as the editor’s own, md an adequate Vocabulary. *
Worman’s German Echo.
Worman’s German Copy-Books, 3 Numbers.
On the same plan as the most approved systems for English penmanship, with
progressive copies.
CHAUTAUQUA SERIES.
First and Second Books in German.
By the natural or Pestalozzian System, for teaching the language without the help
of the Learner’s Vernacular. By James H. Worman, A. M.
These books belong to the new Chautauqua German Language Series, and are in¬
tended for beginners learning to speak German. The iieculiar features of its method
are: —
It teaches the language by direct appeal to illustrations of the objects
^ e I e ^ re< ^ to, and does not allow the student to guess what is said, lie speaks from the
first hour understandinglv and accurately. Therefore,
2. Grammar is taught both analytically and synthetically throughout tht
course, ihe beginning is made with the auxiliaries of tense and mood, because their
Kinship with the English makes them easily intelligible ; then follow the declensions of
nouns, articles, and other parts of speech, always systematically arranged. It is easy
to confuse the pupil by giving him one person or one case at a time. This pernicious
P ra <;tiee is discarded. Books that beget unsystematic habits of thought are worse than
w ortr i6»s.
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
MODERN LANGUAGES — Continued.
3. The rules are introduced after the examples; the purpose being to employ
first the lower or sense faculty or' the mind.
4. Everything- is taught by contrast and association, to avoid overtaxing the
memory at the expense of tne reason.
5. The lessons convey much practical varied information, and engage the ob¬
serving as well as the thinking faculties of the learner’s mind.
In short, this brief series contains within its few pages all the essentials of German/
Grammar so presented that their mastery is easy, and the student prepared upon its
completion to enter upon the study of the more recondite, complicated, and irregular
principles of the language.
From Prof. Schele de Vere, author of a
French Grammar, Studies in English, &c.,
&c., University of Virginia, Va.
Prof. James H. Worman.
My dear Sir,— Your very liberal pub¬
lishers (Messrs. A. S. Barnes & Co.) have
done me the honor to send me a copy of
your excellent works, The First French and
the Second German Book. It needed
no introduction in the shajje of compli¬
mentary notices sans nombres to call my
attention to the eminent merits of these
valuable publications. But I was sin¬
cerely glad that the public at large, as
well as me, confreres litteraires dans ce
departement de la Linguistique, have at
length discerned the great advantages of
your method, and enabled you and your
publishers to bring out your works in a
style so truly in sympathy with the in¬
trinsic value of the different volumes.
Most unfortunately — for how I should
delight to wield such exquisitely shaped
and sharpened instruments to make my
way into thick crania and dense brains !
— our university way of teaching does
not admit of the admirable method pre¬
scribed in your volumes. The laws of
the Medes are as Irreversible here as the
Decrees of Mr. Jefferson, and when I fan¬
cied I had obtained the victory, I found
myself faced by a stern decree. All I can
do, therefore, is to recommend your works
most earnestly and most urgently, in the
point of economy, to my young graduates,
hundreds of whom leave us every harvest
time, to scatter their seeds broadcast over
the vast fields of the South, and to profess
boldly their adherence to the confessions
of their teachers.
Wishing you heartily the best success,
and hoping that I shall be able hereafter
also modestly to assist you, I remain, very
sincerely yours, Schele De Vere.
From Head Master, Boston (Mass.) Normal
School.
Messrs. A. S. Barnes & Co.,— I want to
thank you for the copies of those beautiful
little books for beginners in German and
French prepared by Professor Worman.
The Professor is taking his pupils
along the right road rapidly and delight¬
fully.
Whatever may be said of the tedious¬
ness of learning the grammar of a new
language, I think all will agree that the
great labor is mastering the vocabulary.
And it is just at this point that 1 think
these books are of great use. The exercises
are so developed out of pictured objects and
actions, and are so weil graduated that
almost from the very outset they go alone.
A beginner would have little use for
a dictionary in reading the “ First French
Book;” and yet the words are so introduced
and so often used, that the meaning is
kept constantly before the mind, without
the intervention of a translation. By this
means the pupil soon makes them his
permanent possession.
A dozen volumes as well graduated as
these would do much to give the student
an extended vocabulary. I trust Professor
Worman will continue his good work.
Yours very truly.
L. Dunton.
From Mr. R. T. Taylor, of Beaver, Pa.
Messrs. A. S. Barnes & Co.
Dear Sirs, — Your kindness in sending
books appreciated. I have examined Pro¬
fessor Worman’s “ First French Book ” and
I think it the best thing of the kind I have
ever seen. There is just enough of the
grammar combined to make the natural
method practicable. I shall introduce
the work into my school this fall. We have
been using Proiessor Worman’s German
books and are very much pleased with
them. The “Echo,” in particular, de¬
lights pupils. They make more advance¬
ment in one year by this method than in
two by the old manner of teaching.
Wishing you success in your business {
I am
Yours very truly,
R. T. Taylor,
56
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS .
FRENCH.
Worman’s First French Book.
On same plan as the German and Spanish. The scholar reads and speaks from the
first hour understandingly and accurately. 83 pages.
Worman’s Second French Book.
Continues the work of the First Book, and is a valuable Elementary French Reader.
96 pages.
Worman’s Le Questionnaire.
Exercises on the First French Book. 98 pages. Cloth.
Worman’s Grammaire Frangaise.
Written in simple French, but based on English analogy. It therefore dwells upon the
Essentials, especially those which point out the variations of the French from the
student’s vernacular. 184 pp.
Worman’s Teacher’s Hand-Book.
Or Key to the Grammaire Francaise.
Worman’s French Echo.
This is not a mass of meaningless and parrot-like phrases thrown together for
a tourist’s use, to bewilder him when in the presence of a Frenchman.
The “ Echo de Paris ” is a strictly progressive conversational hook, beginning with sim¬
ple phrases and leading by frequent repetition to a mastery of the idioms and of the
every-day language used in business, on travel, at a hotel, in the chit-chat of
society.
It presupposes an elementary knowledge of the language, such as may be acquired
from the First French Book by Professor Worman, and furnishes a running French
text, allowing the learner of course to find the meaning of the words (in the appended
Vocabulary), and forcing him, by the absence of English in the text, to think in
French.
Cher Monsieur Worman, — Vous me
demandez mon opinion sur votre “ Echo de
Paris” et quel usage j’en fais. Je ne
saurais mieux vous repondre qu’en repro-
duisant une lettre que j’ecrivais derniere-
ment A un collegue qui etait, me disait-il,
“bien fatigue de ces insipides livres de
dialogues.”
“ Vous ne ronnaissez done pas,” lui
disais-je, “ ‘l’Echo de Paris,’ edite par le
Professor Worman? C’est un veritable
tresor, merveilleusement adapte au devel-
oppement de la conversation familiere et
pratique, telle qu’on la veut aujourd’hui.
Cet excellent livre met successivement en
scene, d’une maniere vive et interessante,
loutes les circonstances possibles de la vie
ordinaire. Voyez l’immense avantage
il vous transporte en France ; du premier
mot, je m’imagine, et mes eleves avec moi,
que nous sommes a Paris, dans la rue, sur
une place, dans une gare, dans un salon,
dans une chambre, voire meine a la cui¬
sine ; je parle com me avec des Frangais ;
les eleves ne songent pas a traduire de
1’anglais pour me repondre ; ils pensent
en frangais ; ils sont Frangais pour le
moment par les yeux, par l’oreille, par la
pensee Quel autre livre pourrait produire
cette illusion? ...”
Votre tout aevoue,
A. de Rougemont,
Illustrated Language Primers
French and English. German and English.
Spanish and English.
The names of common objects properly illustrated and arranged in easy lessons.
Pujol’s Complete French Class-Book.
Offers in one volume, methodically arranged, a complete French course — usually
embraced in series of from five to twelve books, including the bulky and expensive
lexicon. Here are grammar, conversation, and choice literature, selected from the
best French authors. Each branch is thoroughly handled ; and the student, having
diligently completed the course as prescribed, may consider himself, without further
application, au fait in the most polite and elegant language of modern times.
57
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
MODERN LANGUAGES — Continued.
Pujol’s French Grammar, Exercises, Reader. 3 vols.
These volumes contain Part I., Parts II. and III., and Part IV. 01 the Complete Class*
Book respectively, for the convenience of scholars and teachers. The Lexicon is bound
with each part.
Maurice-Poitevin’s Grammaire Frangaise.
American schools are at last supplied with an American edition of this famous text¬
book. Many of our best institutions have for years been procuring it from abroad
rather than forego the advantages it offers. The policy of putting students who have
acquired some proficiency from the ordinary text-books, into a Grammar written in the
vernacular, cannot be too highly commended. It affords an opportunity for finish and
review at once, while embodying abundant practice of its own rules.
SPANISH.
Woman’s First Spanish Book.
On same plan as Worman’s first German and French Books. Teaches by direct ap¬
peal to illustrations, and by contrast, association, and natural inference. 9G pp.
These little books work marvels in the school-room. The exercises are so developed
out of pictured objects and actions, and are so well graduated, that almost from the
very outset they go alone. A beginner would have little use for a dictionary in reading.
Tl*3 words are so introduced, and so often used, that the meaning is kept constantly
before the mind, without the intervention of a translation.
Other Spanish Books to follow.
ANCIENT LANGUAGES.
LATIN.
Searing’s Virgil’s .ffineid, Georgies, and Bucolics.
1. It contains the first six books of the jEueid and the entire Bucolics and Georgies.
2. A very carefully constructed Dictionary. 3. Sufficiently copious notes. 4. Gram¬
matical references to four leading Grammars. 5. Numerous illustrations of the highest
order. 6. A superb map of the Mediterranean and adjacent countries. 7. Dr. S. H.
Taylor’s “Questions on the Aineich” 8. A Metrical Index, and an essay on the
Poetical Style. 9. A photographic facsimile of an early Latin MS. 10. The text is
according to Jahn, but paragraphed according to Ladewig. 11. Superior mechanical
execution.
“ My attention was called to Searing’s
Virgil by the fact of its containing a vo¬
cabulary which would obviate the neces¬
sity of procuring a lexicon. But use in
the class-room has impressed me most
favorably with the accuracy and just pro¬
portion of its notes, and the general ex¬
cellence of its grammatical suggestions.
The general character of the book, in its
Johnson’s Persius.
The Satires of Aulus Persius Flaccus, edited, with English notes, principally from
Conington. By Henry Clark Johnson, A. M., LL.B., Professor of Latin in the Lehigh
University,
58
paper, its typography, and its engravings,
is highly commendable, and the jacsimile
manuscript is a valuable feature. I take
great pleasure in commending the book to
all who do not wish a comidete edition of
Virgil. It suits our short school courses
admirably.” Henry L. Boltwood, Mas¬
ter Princeton High School, III.
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
GREEK
n
Scarborough’s First Lessons in Greek.
A new two-term text-book, with copious notes and references to the Grammars of
Goodwin and Hadley, and an adequate Vocabulary. Designed as an Elementary Drill-
book on the inflections and syntax of the Greek language.
I. These Lessons embrace all the essential points of the Greek etymology and syn¬
tax. and are sufficient to introduce the learner to Goodwin’s Greek Reader, Xenophon’s
Anabasis, or similar Greek.
II. The notes and references are full enough in every particular to give the
student a thorough knowledge of the rudimentary forms, inflections, and principles of
the Greek language.
III. The verb is introduced early, so that the inflections of nouns and verbs
are given side by side, and the pupil is at once made acquainted with complete
sentences.
IV- As the student advances, the principles of Greek syntax are graduallv developed
so that he is led step by step from the simple to the more complex.
•Yu T lie , book is divided into two parts. The first consists of seventv-eight lessons,
with Greek and English lessons alternating. The second, of selections from the
Anabasis (parts of the 1st and 6th chapters, Bk. I.) and the Memorabilia (the Choice of
Hercules, Bk. II., chapter 1).
VI. The book is sufficient for all purposes in rudimentary instruction.
From The Religious Herald, Hartford, Ct.
“We are highly pleased with this ele¬
mentary work. The eiglity-five lessons of
part first may well be taken in fifteen to
twenty weeks, and part second may be
pursued to advantage, or the scholar may
go directly from the first part to the Ana¬
basis. The arrangement of lessons is
good, which the teacher will employ at
his discretion so as to secure the most
efficient work of his classes.”
“ I have examined Professor Scarbo¬
rough’s ‘ First Lessons in Greek ’ with
some care, and am much interested in
the book. It is clear and accurate, de-
velopes the subject naturally and easily
and is handsomely printed. The methods
of a practical teacher are everywhere
seen.” Wm. G. Frost,
Professor of Greek, Oberlin College , Ohio.
“I have examined Professor Scarbo¬
rough’s ‘First Lessons in Greek’ with
much care. I am exceedingly well pleased
with the work and think it in every way
well adapted to the uses for which it is
intended. ”
Wm H. Tibball,
Principal of Poland (0.), Seminary.
60
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS .
SCHOOL MUSIC.
Ryan’s Vocalist.
A new singing book for Graded Schools, Seminaries and social assemblies. 232 pages,
long 8vo, cloth.
The National School Singer.
Bright, new music for the day school, embracing Song Lessons, Exercise Songs, Songs
of Study, Order, Promptness, and Obedience, of Industry and Nature, Patriotic and
Temperance Songs, Opening and Closing Songs ; in fact, everything needed in the
school-room. By an eminent musician and composer.
Jepson’s Music Readers. 3 vols.
These are not books from which children simply learn songs, parrot-like, but teach
the subject progressively, the scholar learning to read music by methods similar to
those employed in teaching him to read printed language. Any teacher, however igno¬
rant of music, provided he can, upon trial, simply sound the scale, may teach it without
assistance, and will end by being a good singer himself. The “ Elementary Music
Reader,” or first volume, fuily develops the system. The two companion volumes carry
the same method into the higher grades, but their use is not essential.
The First Reader is also published in three parts, at thirty cents each, for those who
prefer them in that form.
Nash and Bristow’s Cantara.
The first volume is a complete musical text-book for schools of every grade. No. 2 is
a choice selection of solos and part songs. The authors are Directors of Music
in the public schools of New York City, in which these books are the standard of
instruction.
The Polytechnic.
Collection of Part Songs for High and Normal Schools and Clubs. This work con¬
tains a quantity of exceedingly valuable material, heretofore accessible only in sheet
form or scattered in numerous and costly works. The collection of “ College Songs ”
is a very attractive feature.
Curtis’s Little Singer: — School Vocalist. — Kings¬
ley’s School-Room Choir. — Young Ladies’
Harp. — Hager’s Echo (A Cantata).
SCHOOL DEVOTIONAL EXERCISE,
Brooks’s School Manual of Devotion.
This volume contains daily devotional exercises, consisting of a hymn, selections of
Scripture for alternate reading by teacher and pupils, and a prayer. Its value for open¬
ing and closing school is apparent.
Brooks’s School Harmonist.
Contains appropriate tunes for each hymn in the “ Manual of Devotion” described
above.
Bartley’s Songs for the School.
A selection of appropriate hymns of an unsectarian character, carefully classified
and set to popular and “ singable. ” tunes, for opening and closing exercises. The Secu¬
lar Department is full of bright and well-selected music.
61
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
TEACHERS’ AIDS AND SCHOOL REQUISITES.
CHARTS AND MAPS.
Baade’s Reading Case.
This remarkable piece of school-room furniture is a receptacle containing a number
of primary cards. By an arrangement of slides on the front, one sentence at. a time is
shown to the class. Twenty-eight thousand transpositions may be made, affording a
)variety of progressive exercises which no other piece of apparatus offers. One of its
"best features is, that it is so exceedingly simple as not to get out of order, while it may
fbe operated with one linger.
/Clark’s Grammatical Chart.
Exhibits the whole science of language in one comprehensive diagram.
Davies’s Mathematical Chart.
Elementary mathematics clearly taught to a full class at a glance.
De Rupert’s Philological and Historical Chart.
This very comprehensive chart shows the birth, development, and progress of the
literatures of the world ; their importance, their influence on each other, and the cen¬
tury in which such influence was experienced ; with a list for each country of standard
authors and their best works. Illustrating also the division of languages into classes,
families, and groups. Giving date of settlement, discovery, or conquest of all countries,
with their government, religion, area, population, and the percentage of enrolment for
1872, in the primary schools of Europe and America.
Eastman’s Chirographic Chart. Family Record.
Giffins’s Number Chart.
Teaches addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Size, 23x31 inches.
Marcy’s Eureka Tablet.
A new system for the alphabet, by which it may be taught without fail in nine lessons.
McKenzie’s Elocutionary Chart.
Monteith’s Pictorial Chart of Geography.
A crayon picture illustrating all the divisions of the earth’s surface commonly
taught in geography.
Wm. L. Dickinson, Superintendent of
Schools , Jersey City, says.
“It is an admirable amplification of the
system of pictorial illustration adopted
Monteith’s Reference Maps. School and Grand Series.
Names all laid down in small type so that to the pupil at a short distance they are
outline maps, while they serve as their own key to the teacher.
Page’s Normal Chart.
The whole science of elementary sounds tabulated.
Scofield’s School Tablets.
On five cards, exhibiting ten surfaces. These tablets teach orthography, reading,
object-lessons, color, form, &c.
Watson’s Phonetic Tablets.
in all good geographies. I think the
chart would be a great help in any pri¬
mary department.”
Four cards and eight surfaces ; teaching pronunciation and elocution phonetically.
F'»r class exercises.
Whitcomb’s Historical Chart.
A student’s topical historical chart, from the creation to the present time, including
results of the latest chronological research. Arranged with spaces for summary, that
pupils may prepare and review their own chart in connection with any text-book.
Willard’s Chronographers.
Historical. Four numbers : Ancient chronographer, English chronographer, Ameri¬
can chronographer, temple of time (general). Dates and events represented to the eye.
62
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
CHARTS, &c. — Continued.
Popular Folding Reading Charts.
In two parts. Price $5.00 each. These fifty-three charts are the outgrowth of prac¬
tical reading lessons, all of which have been tried with classes of little children, first
as black-board lessons, and afterward as printed manuscripts. By this method all the
lessons were adapted to the capacity of the children. The words have been carefully
selected and graded from the child’s own spoken vocabulary.
PART L
The new words of the first part are taught
by the word and sentence method, the object-
words being illustrated by engravings.
All the lessons sparkle with real childlike
expressions. The language is the language
of childhood, and thus to the pupil becomes
doubly interesting while at the same time
progressive.
The Clock Face, with Movable Hands, is
an important and attractive feature. The au¬
thors know from experience that very happy
results can be had by its use. Teaching chil¬
dren to tell the time lias always been expected
of the teacher, though seldom, if ever, has an
opportunity been afforded him to do so.
All the letters of the alphabet are taught by
a series of writing lessons in the order of
their development, and are finally grouped to¬
gether in a script alphabet.
PART II
takes up the development of the elementary
sounds of the language, from the words already
learned in Part I., in such a way as to enable
the child to see for himself how words are made,
and giving the key by which he can make out
for himself new words.
A series of language lessons is the feature
of this part, by which children are gradually
taught the use of words by composing brief
sentences and original stories.
The Color Chart is the most unique feature
ever offered to the public, enabling the teacher
to teach the primary and secondary colors from
nature.
Many review lessons are given in order that
the children may learn to read by reading.
No easel or framework of any kind is re¬
quired with the chart. The publishers have
secured the exclusive right to use Shepard’s
Patent Chart Binding, the use of which
gives it a decided advantage over any other
reading chart yet made. It is in this respect
unapproachable.
A little girl.
Ct little aMl.
Here is a girl.
Here is alittle girl.
/CO /C& /C/s
G3
THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS.
APPARATUS.
Bock’s Physiological Apparatus.
A collection of twenty-seven anatomical models.
Harrington’s Fractional Blocks.
Harrington’s Geometrical Blocks.
These patent blocks are hinged, so that each form can be dissected.
Kendall’s Lunar Telluric Globe.
Moon, globe, and tellurian combined.
Steele’s Chemical Apparatus.
Steele’s Geological Cabinet.
Steele’s Philosophical Apparatus.
Wood’s Botanical Apparatus.
RECORDS.
Cole’s Self-Reporting Class Book.
For saving the teacher’s labor in averaging. At each opening are a full set of tables
showing any scholar’s standing at a glance, and entirely obviating the necessity of
computation.
Tracy’s School Record. {pockefSn.}
For keeping a simple but exact record of attendance, deportment, and scholarship.
The larger edition contains also a calendar, an extensive list of topics for compositions
and colloquies, themes for short lectures, suggestions to young teachers, &c.
Benet’s Individual Records.
Brooks’s Teacher’s Register.
Presents at one view a record of attendance, recitations, and deportment for the
whole term.
Carter’s Record and Roll-Book.
This is the most complete and convenient record offered to the public. Besides the
usual spaces for general scholarship, deportment, attendance, &c., for each name and
day, there is a space in red lines enclosing six minor spaces in blue for recordiug
recitations.
National School Diary.
A little book of blank forms for weekly report of the standing of each scholar, from
teacher to parent. A great convenience.
REWARDS.
National School Currency.
A little box containing certificates in the form of money. The most entertaining and
stimulating system of school rewards. The scholar is paid for his merits and fined for
his short-comings. Of course the most faithful are the most successful in business.
In this way the use and value of money and the method of keeping accounts are also
taught. One box of currency will supply a school of fifty pupils.
64
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