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cattll Vs.. alll “al tren. call
A JOURNAL OF HIGHWAY RESEARCH
wee | =
ew UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE | |/4° =
OS BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS Shy
linen Dor |
VOL. 5,NO.9 v NOVEMBER, 1924
GENERAL VIEW OF APPARATUS FOR STATIC LOAD TESTS OF CONCRETE SLABS, ARLINGTON, VA.
WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1924
PUBLIC ROA
A JOURNAL OF HIGHWAY RESEARCH
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS
CERTIFICATE: By direction of the Secretary of Agriculture, the matter contained herein is published as administrative information and is required
for the proper transaction of the public business
VOL. 5, NO. 9 NOVEMBER, 1924 H. S. FAIRBANK, Editor
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Static Load Tests on Pavement Slabs , ;
The Constitutionality of Motor Vehicle License Fees and the Gasoline Tax : /
Status of the Motor Truck Impact Tests of the Bureau of Public Roads |]
Road Material Tests and Inspection News Bec ts:
THE VU. S. BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS
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d J. Ki ildi ;
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STATIC LOAD TESTS ON PAVEMENT SLABS
By J. T. THOMPSON, Highway Research Specialist, United States Bureau of Public Roads
OUR years ago the Bureau of Public Roads began
f the testing of approximately 50 small typical
road slabs under impact forces. The success of
this early program led in the summer of 1921 to the
construction of 124 larger slabs embracing a greatér
variation of type. ‘These slabs were tested under im-
pact during the summer of 1923 and the results of the
test were fully reported in the article entitled ‘“‘Impact
tests on concrete pavement slabs,’ published in Pus-
Lic Roaps, volume 5, No. 2, April, 1924.
After these impact tests were concluded it was
thought that a check on the impact results and addi-
tional information could be obtained by subjecting
the slabs to tests under loads applied statically instead
of dynamically. Itis with these static tests, conducted
during the summer of 1924, that the present report
concerns itself.
~
oh ee hares
¢ ee Sethe
Pe ame
The tank used in the static load tests, showing saddles and cribbing
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS
1. The static resistance of both the corners and the
edges of the rigid slabs is affected by the nature of the
subgrade, the more resistant the subgrade to load the
greater the resistance of the slab, and vice versa.
2. The resistance of the rigid slabs to static loads
does not vary with the square of the depth but as
some power greater than one and less than two.
About 1.75 is the average value, the exponent being
higher for slabs on the wet subgrade and lower for
those on the dry subgrade.
3. The corners and edges of concrete slabs of the
size and thickness tested offer about the same degree
of resistance to static loads.
4. The presence of mesh reinforcement as employed
in the slabs under consideration does not increase the
load-carrying capacity of concrete slabs but does give
rise to a tendency to hold together and resist com-
plete failure after initial or elastic failure has taken place.
5. The bituminous topping laid on the rigid slabs
does not increase the resistance of the slabs to static
load.
6. At the ordinary summer temperatures encountered,
bituminous slabs of the types tested show no slab
strength.
16254—24f (1)
DESCRIPTION OF SLABS
Of the 124 slabs, 56 were placed on a carefully drained
subgrade and 68 on a subgrade which was kept per-
manently saturated by water-filled ditches aarallel to
and on both sides of the line of slabs, the water stand-
ing level with the bottom of the slabs. The slabs were
cast in duplicate and the more important types were
laid on both the wet and the dry subgrades, which were
carefully cut to the grade of the slab bottom to pre-
vent the original structure of the soil from being
disturbed,
In the mesh-reinforced slabs the reinforcement was
placed uniformly 2 inches from the top, and where
two layers were used they were placed in contact with
each other.
The different types may be divided roughly into
five groups:
1. Plain concrete.
2. Reinforced concrete.
(4) Mesh-reinforced.
(6) Rod-reinforced |!
3. Concrete bases with bituminous tops.
te ein —Seeieoal Oe EP eres ES a
TIRE SEGMENT? “HYDRAULIC JACK
SIDE ELEVATION
4 Le
GALIBRATED STEEL BEAM
SECTION
Arrangement of apparatus for static load tests
4, Bituminous bases with bituminous tops.
5. Macadam bases with bituminous tops.
A detailed description of the slabs is given in Table
1. For additional information relative to the con-
struction of the slabs, the reader is referred to the
article entitled “Impact tests on concrete pavement
slabs,’ published in Pusric Roaps, volume 5, No.
2, April, 1924.
TaBLe 1.—Descriplion of slabs—All slabs 7 feet square of material
and thickness shown below—NSeries 200-267, on wet subgrade—
Series 300-377, on dry subgrade
PLAIN CONCRETE SLABS AND BASES
| Base course Binder course Surface course
Slab | |
NO. | nick Thick Thick
aorefs Material ) ness Material aun Material
— — EE
| Inches | Inches Inches
200 | 6 | Macadam..._-_- 4' Bituminous 2 | Topeka.
concrete.
201 | Bs RN acral Yee ‘Ly ot 2 Do.
204 | 4 Sees BO en gctacie!) gg Cee do_- 2 Do.
205 | ph Le: | See e ee 1 Gh eer aee i oe 2 Do.
208 | Bs 1S os (hs 8 oe BIG an. ‘a fy Soe 2 Do.
209 | A ee do... | a tees do Zz Do.
212 | Ar ae St eee en ee AS 8 ee eee 2 Do.
213 be oe Pe SR) a as 2 Do.
214 Ge it; oe Stata 2 Do.
215 ig ee do. - _ ? 2 Do.
216 | Ue ft lee fits sau . eS ee.) ae ee eee 2 Do
217 | | Bee RR ST Sf SEE ee 2 Do.
218 | 6| Bituminous 2 Do.
| concrete.
219 | BN RE, FE See TE i. Nee ng ee Pa Bn ed 2 Do.
220 | ee do-. +74 5 . 2 | Do.
221 | i eee ee 2 | Do.
1 Not tested statically.
TABLE 1.—Description of slabs—All slabs ? feet square of material
and thickness shown below—Series 200-267, on wet subgrade—
Serves 300-337, on dry subgrade—Continued
PLAIN CONCRE' TE SLABS AND BASES—Continued
Binder course Sur face ¢ course
Base course
Slab — ——=— a7 =
No. Thick- TT Thick- a net , hie k- “
ness Material ness Material sis Material
Inches Inches| _ Inches
222 6 | 1:3:6 concrete. _- 146} Bituminous 114 Sheet asphalt.
concrete.
223 6 Gi he L2G) 222 = 0 coat 114 Do.
224 6 fame. Pept ak Be ein ea 24 eee { . Coarse bitumi-
nous concrete.
995 6 eave (35. { Do.
2265 6 0G 2 Do.
227 6 SOL 5 Sate ee 2 Do.
228 4 .do 2 Topeka.
229 4 Oss tecn2e22 2 Do.
230 4} |: 134: 3 concrete 2 Do.
231 4 Ws layee 2 Do.
232 6 | 1:3:6 cone: “ete... 2 Do.
233 <p! eee A ee 2 Do.
234 6 1:L: 3 concrete - 2 Do.
235 i tpl pee ag do i Do.
236 oS | 223:6 concre (6-5 Ale o== eric Z Do.
937 4 do ep a 2 Do.
238 & | 1:139:3 concrete.|.------- 2 Do.
239 S sa ee et eee, See 2 Do.
DA > > eee el doexinaceRereeee 4 1:114:3 concrete
Sl ee a bee Se Se ars Bee! PEE oe, = 4 | Do.
Dee ie | aes et eee ee eee te |S a ee ey Do.
ee ea 6 | Do.
GA |e ee eI OR eS BAls oot gd eer See eee 6 | 1:3:6 concrete
VAG es EA 6 | Do.
246 Be tahoe oes Sead Pa aie ee eee 8 1:1144:3 concrete
BEN acess x a Do.
248 . : 8 | 1:3:6 concrete
249 i wl aE es | eee ea ll norcross nce aS ale ae 8 | Do.
300 { Macadam 2 | Bituminous con 2 | Topeka
crete.
301 4 A eee 2 _do 2 Do.
304 hye 5a WG 255 eee io acer ee 2 Do.
305 tes OO aided Ba cee et ene 2 Do.
306 3) Sotho 2 Do.
307 6 i ee 3 Do.
308 g it) eee ee eee et ee ee 9 Do.
309 4 P| oe do” 2 Do:
310 6 Bituminous con- 9 Do.
| erete.
311 iy es Ga ae ee we sl lems = 2 | iBya"
312 | [aes i) a ees os See oH Do.
313 7 do__ ep eae ee oe ee 2 Do.
314 6 | 1:14%: 3 concrete... 2 Do.
315 | RT INS Ss ie Bary Le! 2 Do.
316 6 | 1:3:6 concrete. eee Z Do.
ot | 6 = Gee | bs 5 2 Do.
318 4 | 1:13 4:3 concrete - Pee - 2 Do.
319 fae ee oe i Ca ee yore Sn sll talons ale see np hee te 2 Do.
320 | Oe dives . 2 Do.
321 1 ees do: 2.225% Bes. « ee ee ee 2 | Do.
rp ah ee ee eee Oe - a 4 | 1:119:3 concrete
CB. bj ae A ee I Cece ey UE oe A 4 Do.
OY Me Se as ol | ie Cee eee Se Se | 6 Do.
7M ee | oe. 6 Do.
B26" |e eSece © eee ee ees 6 1:3:6 concrete
327 tk haa eee oe De Sep Sis ai A ee ie eres ee 5 4 Do.
BIS «| sa serie: bh eS Ss oes ee eee ee eeeba | 8 | 1:14:38 concrete
Sand lcs ge are Be, See ee, oe ae ee * | Do.
CONCRET E SLABS WITH MESH REINFORC /ING—W ET SU BGR ADE
sur re € course
Reinforcement
Slab
No. | Thick- Dee — _———
aor Material | ae lt See
Description per sq. ft.
In. |
250 | 4 | 6:3 conerete = 2-0 <-2.- <3 Liaver DD.6%25 42 ee 0. 30
251 5 pee se er eae | Be IG oe SS, oe ate re ee . 30
252 4 | a Ln OS Ay ee 2 layers No. hae PS ee . 60
253 AY CW line! 16) See Pes ee Tee, ae . 60
254 9) ee tee ‘ot: ee 2 lay a hae, ae Bas 5 .75
255 4 Oe per ee Biase
256 4 | G2 Jew Sate oe 1 le ar ‘Ne-10. 5 Soo 46
257 4 do- Lae 46
258 4 0; ee ee 2 layers No. 10_ . 93
259 4 _do- rae re eer . 93
260 (5 _do- ! layer No. 6. _ 30
261 6 _do Foley OEE y 30
262 {} do 2 lay ers No. 6. . 60
263 6 do A vt 60
264 6 _do 2 layers No. 8. Bo a, oe 10
265 6 do Boy: oan we a 75
266 fi do 2 layers No. 10. . 93
267 § do ath) eS en . 93
CONCRETE SLABS WITH MESH REINFORCING—DRY SUBGRADE
330 4.) 1514423 COnETeUe.W.... =~ =.--: | Y ayer NOG. Oo sooo eee 0. 30
331 Ce eas |, oe i ee Wee Ce! . 30
332 ae + RS Se re. ee 1 lay er Nv, 10... 2. .46
333 4 tae se Veg ees EDRs Saad 0h 4 oh tae ee acclees eal . 46
334 6 do- 2 lay ers No. 6_..- 60
335 | 6 _do =|-s ep Se Te 60
336 | 1 Se Se Fee cere .| ahah s 70.32 ceases, 75
3a7 6 = 0023: oe a | aay a Paes ayy fi
DESCRIPTION OF TEST METHODS AND APPARATUS
In the static tests the loads were applied to the slabs
by a hydraulic jack through the medium of a segment
of a solid rubber truck tire bolted to a cast-iron block.
The necessary reaction for the jack was furnished by a
large tank filled with water which the jack par tially
lifted as it applied load to the slab. This load was
measured by a simply supported 4-inch by us
chrome-nickel steel beam on a 30-inch span, the u
ward reaction of the jack loading this beam at th
midpoint. The deflections of this beam, from hice
the loads were determined, were measured by an Ames
dial, reading to ten-thousandths of an inch, which was
mounted on the beam with its plunger resting on a
one-half-inch square steel bar pivoted to the beam
under the supporting knife edges at the neutral axis.
The deflections of the bituminous slabs were meas-
ured by engineers’ scales set vertically on the tire
block, the readings being made against horizontal arms
secured to steel pins driven firmly into the subgrade.
Two scales were employed and the vere used to
take account of the tilting of the tire block.
The deflections of the rigid slabs were measured by
means of an Ames dial which recorded the movement
v iew o appar: fu oars calibrated steel boas with ten- (honsandtae inch Ames
dial measuring its deflection, hydraulic jack, tire block, slab deflection gauges at
point of test and at corner, and graphic strain gauges in top and bottom of the slab
at the edge
of a pin set into the corner or edge of the slabs, while
the tilting of the slabs as a whole was recorded by
other Ames dials mounted usually at the three corners
of the slabs.
The fiber deformations produced were measured by
means of graphic strain gauges of the type developed
by the Bureau of Public Roads and described in
Engineering N ews-Record, March 22, 1923, in an
article entitled ‘ ‘A new impact strain gauge,” by A.
T. Goldbeck. In testing the edges such gauges were
used in both the top and bottom of theslab. In testing
the corners they were set along the diagonal on the
top of the slab, one gauge overlapping “its neighbor
so as to insure at least one gauge catching the crack
at failure and recording the maximum fiber stress.
In the edge tests the load was applied at the middle
of the side of the slab and 5 inches from the edge. It
was found that if the load were applied at a point
closer to the edge the tire segment would Sventiane
when expanded under load. In testing the corners the
load was applied 7 inches from the corner measured
along the diagonal of the slab.
The suber ade bearing value was determined by the
method described in PUuBLéc Roaps, volume 4, No. 5
)
Tire block and jack with engineers’ scales for measuring slab deflection against
stationary arms
Graphic strain gauges arranged to measure compressive and tensile stresses in edge
of slab; Ames dial measures deflection
Three graphic strain gauges set along diagonal of slab, overlapping so as to catch
maximum fiber stress
September, 1921, in the article entitled “ Preliminary
report on the Bates experimental road.”’ The method
of test was to apply a constantly increasing load to a
small circular bearing block in contact with the sc raped
surface of the subgrade, and to measure the penetration
of this foot into the subgrade at equal intervals of load.
DISCUSSION OF DATA
Before discussing the test data certain explanatory
remarks arenecessary. The concrete fiber stresses were
measured in the following manner: Records of the fiber
deformations for various static loads were inscribed by
tie graphic strain gauge upon the smoked-glass plate
hich is a part of the instrument. These plates were
= fixed with varnish, placed in a projecting lantern,
and the greatly magnified records were measured. The
measurements of total fiber deformation were reduced
to strain. The unit stresses corresponding to these
strains were computed from the modulus of elasticity
as determined from tests on 6 by 12-inch cylinders which
were cast at the time the slabs were constructed (1921)
and were tested for modulus of elasticity at the time of
a 500
> FAILURE OCCURRED THROUGH
ea GAGE NO. 76
oe NOTE RELIEF UPON FAILURE
5 IN GAGES NO.68 AND 33
Y)
wy @ 300 >
Cox
~ iw 200 ——+-4
“2 wi ee ee
2 Be we
= 100 + ae
: ae le
a 0
0 | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
STATIC-LOAD- THOUSAND POUNDS
Corner test of slab No. 244, indicating static resistance of 8,100 pounds
GAGE NO. 33 GAGE NO.68 GAGE NO. 76
1440
2700
Qo
O 4500
.)
J
~ 6300
< 7200
”
8100
f
9000
NOTE PERMANENT SET IN CRITICAL ~
GAGE ONLY, RELIEF IN OTHER TWO.
Magnified graphic strain gauge records of corner test of slab No. 244, indicating a
static resistance of 8,100 pounds
the impact tests (1923). Since they were two years old
when the moduli were determined, it is felt that there
was but little change during the ensuing year, and the
1923 values were therefore “used without correction.
“Static load resistance”’ as used in this report is de-
fined as that load which caused a tensile failure in the
concrete. This tensile failure was detected by the
graphic strain gauges. In the edge tests neutral axis
f
plots were made and the load which caused the neutral
axis to shift upward was taken as the “static load re-
sistance.’ The shifting of the neutral axis was taken
as indication that the point of elastic failure had been
reached. <A study of the strain gauge records to see
where large initial sets acc ompanied by rapidly inecreas-
ing deformations began to appear, together with a study
of curves plotted between static loads and unit fiber
stresses, plse helped to determine this point of initial
failure. In the case of the corner tests, no gauges were
placed in the edges and therefore no neutral-axis plots
STATIC
LOADS
900
COMPRESSION TENSION
2700
4500
6300
8100
10100
11 700 NOTE: PERMANENT SET
13 500
14600
15900
i
Magnified graphic strain gauge records of edge test of slab No. 242, indicating a static
resistance of 11,700 pounds
were made, the strain gauge records together with the
load-stress plots furnishing the evidence to determine
where failure occurred.
The point of elastic failure is in reality the ultimate
load, as subsequent loads of an equal or even lesser
amount cause complete failure. This was noted in
several instances.
The data are somewhat restricted in quantity due to
the fact that a number of the slabs were so badly broken
by impact as to render them useless for static tests.
This greatly interfered with the drawing of comparisons
between duplicate types under different conditions.
‘LAB GRA:
EFFECT OF NATURE OF SUBGRADE ON STATIC RESISTANCE
A study of Table 2 leads to the following conclusions:
That the slabs laid on a wet and yielding subgrade
offer less resistance to statically applied loads than do
ee laid on a dry, firm subgrade.
That the resistance does not seem to vary in any
definite manner with the subgrade bearing value as de-
termined by the penetration test, the ratio of slab re-
sistances being tian high where the ratio of subgrade
penetrations is S low, and vice versa.
FIBRE STRESS IN 100 Sie ee eats Nee
24 22 20 18
6 & 12 W 8 i) 8 10 Ie
VJ
o—
ze
NOTE DECIDED LIFT IN NEUTRAL f,
SHOWING THIS 1S LAST LOAD SUCCESSFULLY WITHSTOOD.
aN
Stress distribution diagram for edge test of slab No. 242, indicating a static resistance
of 11,700 pounds
ee |__| Ee
5 eae
©
Z 2200
~ 2000
=
2 1800
28)
~ 1600
Lil
Oo 1400
O
2 1200
5
1000
ms ih NOTE: SHARP BREAK IN TENSION CURVE ad le
oo eS cea
| coal
soo|_L_| commnessionn | eT | | | | | | |
ot CT Lea ee
i anes BEEERERS
aos Wom d Noi BS 4 5
aerial (onDLADONeENE POUNDS
Load-stress diagram of edge test, slab No. 242,
_pounds
indicating static resistance of 11,700
—hffect of nature of subgrade on static resistance
Description of slab
Slab | ae
No. | Thick- ATix 4
spies Mix Reinforcement Top
Inches
331 4 | 1:114:3 | 1 layer No. 6 (0.30 pound per sq. ft.) _|...-._........___.-.
251 4 | eh Re, Rae DO taee ake 8 adn tees at wei eeee cet es
330 4 | VY Ee Be 2 i PE ee a ie yee eS) Ree eS.
250 4 1313659 jocze. 1) i en es Ora RR 2 ere ES
333 4 1:14%:3 | llayer ‘No. 10 (0.46 POUR Pert: Lee Sa ee ee
257 4 1:144:3 if a en Pe ay PS I! Pee? TP pk ce Ss
332 4 1:14%:3 OG enc aocveunsdoeses
256 4 Pont lk: © ees do-
314 6 TERED Soe = oe Poe oe Po ee OE ey 2-inch “Topeka ne eee
234 6 LS ar tll wath ae ere - : Me = Sete ad eis ee pk Seed Se
326 6 Oat Rtk Roa oe a <er Set oe ie a ete a See
244 6 i hes ba ig? ote
335 6 1:14%:3 | 2 layers No. 6 (0.60 pound per sq. ft.)
263 6 Ta See CO 5 oo ware ose we en aud aka ede one wa Seen
334 6 1:14%:3 Aisa seen rn ee Dei Re ene OnE Rae ers
262 6 | he BS a oe 2 (fe eee Pe = eS Fk RAC ae
321 8 LS DRSE le8 ie ech ee eee neh ee ee ee 2-inch TopeKa_.
239 Bhi we ASLO Brees 59 ty ee oe ee cl de rt eee. a
320 8 1:114:3 |. sooad aD inctiecielat tats
238 8 1:144:3 |- E SAO Set.
329 & | 1:1%:3 | ye
247 Be Ur CBR area tie oe sc OE ee Be es Oe Be Sor tee -
328 8 | MEA EIS lcd eon. tua Ouse ss bs ak soe hlecs WES Share akc
246 8 +h 32, Leo re tee SN es ee ae ee Pe ole ER eS
Subgrade penetra-
“in i
! |
el | Static resistance | Ratio | tion at 100-pound
Position of load = -| pda a load
Dry sub-| Wet sub- dry-wet =
grade | grade | Dry Wet
Pounds | Pounds | Inches Inches
ito Clore ono se Ske stok ene 7, 200 Beep 1.33 { 0017 1 e Seésecae
Accutane Os Soltaciard pee 5, 400 | nr ae: 0. 048
ee POGUGs 2 Je Seas esau ental &, 460 cae, 1.88 { ~ OIG acer
‘fy es fe ete AOS cd ly tpt ne an , 500 tees ence 045
oak”, OORT Gri nny chicccras seas! 7, 200 ae 1. 80 i O05 9. .2525ke te
pe Se tf) a eee eee ol onsen 2 , 000 | ‘ } eee er . O49
eee Widget hcsass3=cccaenses p aeeeO eal 1.52 J G17 lee dideeeneeel
palew TO Sree week 4, 860 pe | . 045
FOG Ohh Sk Pes 12 OOP Is case aes \ 1. 80 i OG | occa te
WO, (el Wen | Re 11, 160 SS ee ees O75
eae Corner-- P 10, 400 ett 1.29 { DOT Ht ete hes.
Bl at EE GO. ae ee ee) 8, 100 hie Vice oa 041
aha Corner . . -- auc Seth RE caer sre 1.28 if OUT Sods ke ee
A ae do... ase wiskintelit SNA eae k Ee ae 033
tee Le, OO GE me A HN) Bae na caeee \ 1.55 { AE eres sere ere
eked Sees do_-. Singutsot | ORs acl | Pecan Bes. 0. 029
wet MOONTIET 218 pancm yee eae WER IRS tk oa See | 0. 99 { O14 Joottotwes
ee: |e (0, Oe ee aE ey 58 POPE Se te eee es oe . 016
<a COf7 1 Se ey ee eee eth ER BD 1.79 { OTL hnasesteses
Ee BES ae Pree ee LTE Re a 16, 000 anit ee ve eee | 041
BPE af) gil eee. ee 2B a aa 0.97 i UD Mh Re pe ee
ns deze 22 1 see Le es To ae, thy, ~nanann on] . 097
sesawe Wit oun ho asaetoe can 17, 000 Sra 0 68 { 012 |
OE es Gnd winsysewnchrnashattedesinaaal Seed A Pswee sow _ 062
|
|
VARIATION OF STATIC LOAD RESISTANCE WITH SLAB DEPTH
Table 3 shows that the load resistance varies as
some power of the slab depth which is greater than
one and less than two, the average value of the ex-
ponent being about 1.75. The influence of the sub-
grade resistance upon the exponent is quite marked,
the value of the exponent being 1.92, or quite near
the square, on the wet, yielding subgrade and 1:5 on
the dry subgrade.
uss Ste
AT THIS LOAD
THE PORTION OF SLAB
SHOWN ABOVE HAD
a
#
VERTICAL DEFLECTION DIRECTLY UNDER TIRE SEGMENT
STATIC LOAD- THOUSAND POUNDS
Corner test of slab No. 311, 6-inch bituminous base with 2-inch Topeka top. Air
temperature 81° F., slab temperature 77° F. Note that there is no sharp break of
the curve at failure
TaBLE 3.—Variation of static load resistance with slab depth
Corner tests Edge tests
| Power of | Power of
Depth of slab (all types included) Average | pel He | Average pb
static | which | static | Which
resist- | my | resist- iar
eee | resist=' | “Dea resist-
| ance | ance
| varies | varies
_— - — ir eee —. .— —
Dry subgrade: Pounds | Pounds
TACO sone seen bd merida a eee 7,430 | 1.78 | 7, 980 | 1. 33
Leo) fe ey eo ee 15, 300 | Y 50 | 13, 720 | 1 52
Biioheds xec. a ote oe eS etn 21, 000 8 | 22, 800 |
Wet gue ial |
Be UTROTEE oe ete St a eee oe ee 5, 400 | } 5, 720 |
# iiohied, cen kak notes eet cient 11, 700 yO | 12,600 | _S
21, 500 “| 20, 600 | ==
Rs eee © Sere NI SLES eae
COMPARISON OF EDGE AND CORNER STATIC LOAD RESISTANCE
Table 4 compares the static resistance of the corners
and edges of duplicate slabs and shows that there is
no decided difference between them.
TABLE 4.—Comparison of edge and corner static load resistance
| Description of slab |
Slab (SW ip ee ———| Position | ha
No. | Mix | Reinforcement Top of load | ance
SS | }
Dry sub- | |
grade: Inches | Pounds
SEs 5 oe BP AO ha ates SEO ected Me 2-in. Topeka} Corner_- 7, 900
=, 0 |: Se page| Spal ee ee ee Cae See do _| Edge._-- 8, 100
ie) ee ee & } 1214:3 | llayer No, 6.30 |_-....<...-.-- | Corner-- 7, 200
pound per sq. |
| + (£62 |
ee | 4 | 1:14:38 |..--. ie ae ea ee | Edge.... 8, 460
Govan ere 4 11:13:31 layer No. 10 aa .-| Corner..| 7, 200
| (0.46 pound |
per sq. ft.).
te BESS Too. 1 i eae a | Di ea et | ee 7, 380
6) 13d8:3 h2 Jeyera No, Bisset eee --~- | Corner-., 15, 300
(0.60 pound | :
per sq. ft.).
@ | Medes tcu ine wart aie eet ty ae ke SORES See | Edge_.._ 15, 480
8 | 1:14:3 | wit! 2tde Sha Sie. 2-in. Topeka_| Corner_-| 20, 006
Sa) 2st ee eee ee eee fen tt a A oe | Edge.._.| 28, 600
Pe Se es ee ee ee | Corner_-, 22, 000
Ee Cs cee See oe ae ae Oe Se ee et | Edge....| 17,000
} |
AE 8 ep eee ee ae ne eens Se ee xeon) Comer. 6, 900
Ce es He ber ee tee Ree gw tee ORO soc.2|» 3,100
4 | 1:14:3 | Lisyer No.6 (0.30 |_.-....___.._.| Corner_. 5, 400
pound per sq. |
Laiss
eV eles te i een ee YG
4 |1:14:3 | 2 layers. No. 8 /_.---- _..| Corner_-| 5, 800
| (0.75 pound |
per sq. ft.).
4) Ust$:3 |-~2-- OG. ado os oe Aloe Peeclirei’s Edge_._.| 6,120
4 | 1:14:3 | 1 layer No. 10 fee eees cone! Corne..| 4,000
| (0.46 pound |
per sq. ft.).
4} 351423. |.-2-= Ths Saeed repied tence a AUR Oats a0 Sy Ue
4 | 1:14:3 | 2 layers No. 10 |-------------.| Corner._| 5,400
; (0.938 pound
per sq. f{t.).
Ab bese fate A es oe Te aes Oo oI) a OD
GW askata tle cis ee Roo 2-in.Topeka_| Corner... _ 9, 900
ee ae ee ee Ee oe WOvca--.) Bdge....} 1, 100
MOE CRE Cy, Be ine See oS a ee _.| Corner..; 11, 900
Bil TETS oy ec tennet aoe en eal hasnt cet ee ant’ Leal) ably 200
6 | 1:14:3 | llayer No. 6 (0.30 |---..---- Sve hs | Corner... 10, 500
pound per sq. :
Beek cg eee 0 ee esd ee | Edge..-.. 13,320
6 | 1:19:: | 2 layers No. 6 '|-- | Corner.. 12, 000
| (0.60 pound |
| per sq. ft.).
6 | 1:13:3 |----- Ure See ee 2 = oe eee] EG.) 10,000
6 | 1714:3 | 2 Isyers No. 8 |---.--..-..---| Corner-.| 14,000
| (0.75 pound
per sq. ft.).
@ } 224873 Inna, Gi Sk cere sete ee) POO ROA «ah. ay ee
GY dvterd. [2 layers No: 10-1e-..2..--~<-- | Corner... 12, 000
| (0.93 pound |
| per sq. ft.).
Gf Vi1g23 Lea DUT- Be Facto acca il ae sao oy we | Edge._--, 14, 400
ae Oe Ce Tl es. SNe eens HOA ee _| Corner_- 8, 100
Bh ee iiaeae ena nes tose TP UO eeaeeot JO BOO
3 en Oe SS eS 2-in.'Topeka_| Corner._| 20, 200
Oe Eee ph ee cr eae Se eee OGansnc | Edge...-| 16, 000
2 Me eee Wp tpt ot. Soe iy ee ES asa 5 | Corner 22, 800
Te ee SP 1t1esm& too = | ee ae pe ae Re
5 eo OE GS ee. ae oe 2-in. Topeka_, Corner. 8, 500
FG cil aes ST) ASR let i oe Re ee ee do.....-.| Edge._.} 17, 640
6
EFFECT OF QUANTITY OF MESH REINFORCEMENT ON STATIC LOAD
RESISTANCE
It can be seen from Table 5 that the amount of mesh
reinforcement employed in these slabs has apparently
no influence upon either corner or edge static load
resistance, slabs without reinforcement or with small
amounts frequently developing greater resistances than
those more heavily reinforced.
The mesh reinforcement did, however, tend to hold
the slabs together after elastic failure had taken place
and brought about a much less rapid failure when
complete destruction occurred.
Tapp 5.—Effect of quantity of mesh reinforcement on static load
resistance
= i
Description of slab
Position | Static
Slab No. Reinforcement | cet | resist-
Thick-) wix Top | ence
ness
Dry siab- |
gra de: Tn ches | 7 2 Po ul nds
319. ; 4 | 1:19:3 | 2-in. Topeka | None--......-.~-- } Corner. - 7, 900
GU Sa ER SCs Pe pone, llayer No. 6 (0.30 |...do_.__| 7, 200
pound per sq. |
fhe)
oe | SSCL a llayer No.10(0.46 |_._do.___, 7, 200
pound per sq.
ft.). |
Rigas 4 | 1:14:3 | 2-in, Topeka! None-.-.....-_---. Edge... 8, 100
ee SE sls a a sae ! 1layer No. 6 (0.30 |_._.do____| 8, 460
pound per sq. |
t.ys |
13) ae Tl i et) ee ee llayer No.10 (0.46 |___do___- 7, 380
, pound per sq. |
ft.).
2a 6 | 1;13:3 | 2-in. Topeka| None--.-....----- Edge____| 12, 000
Do) a a Gi) ass Os ee 2layers No.6 (0.60 |___.do___.' 15, 480
pound per sq.
Wet sub-| it.).
grade:
Oe eee Pe ie Eh eee ee ee NONE... << pe eenue Corner_..| 6, 900
Bet ine ook Ay VBR ak ae ew 1 Jayer No. 6 (0.30 |__.do___-} 5, 400
powud per sq. |
a
ric Behe Se CG Re ae eee 2layers No.6 (0.60 |_._.do_.__| 4, 850
pay per sq.
U3
2) eS ol eee meer 2layers No.8 (0.75 |___do.___| 5, 800
pound per sq.
ft.).
5) i Wk as I, (en ee a ne llayer No.10 (0.46 |___do__- 4, 000
pound per sq.
) ft.).
a 4-8 © it) Cee es - e eah ne dayersy No. UG eo dee 5, 400
| | _ (0.3 pound per
SO); 16.).
240). 4] 1:19:33 be Oy NOU 2 amo ee Edge 8, 100
25()_- 4) Tee dee 2 eo a ever Nor eiG.sh |b Sade 2s 4, 500
pound per sq.
ft.)
7A Ope BN Ms ees | 2layers No.8 (0.75 |_._do-__- 6, 120
pring per sq.
Bs
3 aa | 4] 1:14:83 7 _.| Llayer No. 10 (0.46 |___do 4, 860
bound per sq.
{ Bhs)
J Bh SL Nie es ee _|2 layers No. 10 |__-do 5, 040
(0.93 pound per
| Bi sittads | :
ee 6 | 1:14:38 NOM6s247 3 S62 | Corner__' 11, 900
Dali ee PgR RecS (ho Se eee llayer No. 6 (0.30 |___do____| 10, 500
ae per sq.
C.)is
2): oe fe) RTS oe ee ee 2 aere ONO 9G |. dbas2. || 2, 000
(0.60 pound per
sq. ft.).
3. oe Oe Ee Ff Rae ee _.| 2 layers No. 8 |...do._..| 14,000
| (0.75 pound per
sq. ft.).
1, 5: O Age ose. Pecase 4 2 layers No. 10 |.-.do.__.|' 12,000
(0.93 pound per
| sq. ft.).
242. 6 | 1:14:33 ) None@.22 > 26 ' Edge.___| 11, 700
1 layer No. 6 (0.30 |_.-.do____| 13,320
260 6} 1:13:3 pound per sq.
Dhads
| 2 layers No. 6 /-..do..._| 10,000
yn 6 | 1:14:3 _.| (0.60 pound per |
| owe. ft.
264 Bo hc US Be oe oe, | 2 layers No. 8 |-..do_...| 14, 400
(0.75 pound per
| sq. ft.).
266- 6!) 1:19:3 | 2 layers No. 10 |._._.do....| 14,400
| | (0.93 pound per |
| saptt.)s |
EFFECT OF TOPPING COURSE IN STATIC LOAD RESISTANCE
A comparison of the static load resistances of similar
slabs with and without bituminous topping courses is
shown in Table 6. The table brings out the fact that
the addition of the topping course does not increase
the strength. Indeed it might be said that the reverse
is true in some instances. Certainly the 1:3:6 slabs
with bituminous tops on the wet subgrade are badly
disintegrated, while the uncovered 1:3:6 slabs on the
same subgrade are in fair condition. Furthermore the
covered 1:3:6 slabs on the dry subgrade are apparently
nearly as good as the uncovered ones. The 1:13:38
concrete in the covered slabs on both the wet and dry
subgrade compares favorably with that in the un-
covered slabs.
It seems probable that this weakness is the result
of the saturated condition of the lean concrete, surface
evaporation being prevented by the bituminous
covering.
TasBLe 6.—Effect of topping course upon static load resistance
Description of slab
: = = _| Position Static
Slab No. oF resist-
Thick- ree oa ance
Massel Mix Top
Dry subgrade: | Inches | Pounds
BIG, cus ae ee | 6 | 1:3:6 | 2-inch Topeka_._..| Corner-___- 8, 100
4b ey re open SAT et Wael Ee Say ee OG tiene 25 sn Ie AO. 7 an 7, 000
BOOS ese ee Wee | 6 |, 20806 | INGW6. os wee eects ae ols ae 10, 440
OF) alten Oe Cae 8 | 1:14:3 | 2-inch Topeka_____|--- d0ucc 2.83 20, 000
BO Jae pe. ee 8: | lesd f N Gael ete 8 es : MOOS See 22, 000
| |
BU oe a ee 8 | 1:14:3 | 2-inch Topeka_____ |. Bdge... 28, 600
7, eee Oe, ee Bi). Leary IN GHG. 2 eae ens Cc eee) 17, 000
Wet subgrade: |
| a ee | 6 | 1:14:3 | 2-inch Topeka_-_-__- | Corher__4 9, 900
DA occ ae aa ee Gi) DNs | INGE es oe 24 QOSe ee 11, 900
ee | 6 | 1:13:3 | 2-inch Topeka____- Edge... 11, 160
Diag Bhat oe eee 8 fi BSiAsSo lt Oe lew. 2 ee elie GOsvesas: 11, 700
| | 1
71 hae ea 8 | 1:14:83 | 2-inch Topeka... Corner_...| 20, 200
1.) eg ee ee Si Peilees ft NOt s5 ee eee wa 22, 800
| | |
VS ET RE ee) 8 | 1:14:3 | 2-inch Topeka____- | Bdge.io 16, 000
5: SO ae ee eS, Silt, Dydd 34), NOMS see ee ao Os 25, 200
5 ae sae § 1:3:6 | 2-inch Topeka.___- Corner__ &, 500
DAD ot Bere ere ie 8 sg OTYG aon Wien RD > oes | ree LO) Sec See 12, 600
STATIC TESTS OF BITUMINOUS SLABS
The corners and edges of 12 bituminous slabs Nos.
300 and 3801 and 304 to 318, inclusive, were tested.
It was apparently impossible to determine when the
slabs failed, as in no instance did the load-deflection
curves show a sharp break, notwithstanding the fact
that loads were applied and curves plotted far beyond
the point where wide cracks had opened up around the
tire segment. In some instances the test was carried
to a point where the section of slab directly under the
tire segment was completely detached from the main
slab and yet the load-deflection curves did not in-
dicate a sharp break. The test was nothing more than
a soil-penetration determination. The effect of these
slabs seems to be merely to distribute the loads to some
extent over the subgrade.
In view of the apparent impossibility of telling when
the slabs failed, the test data for these 12 slabs are
not included in this report; but the writer concludes
from his observation that these bituminous sections,
at least at the temperature encountered, have an
insignificant, if any, lab strength.
o
‘
fi
THE CONSTITUTIONALITY OF MOTOR VEHICLE
LICENSE FEES AND THE GASOLINE TAX
By HENRY R. TRUMBOWER, Economist, United States Bureau of Public Roads
OON after automobiles made their appearance on
S the highways and their numbers began to in-
crease appreciably, State after State inaugurated
systems of licensing motor vehicles and charging
specific annual fees. The license fees in the begin-
ning were nominal and generally were calculated only
to cover the administrative expenses and the inspec-
tion costs necessary in the enforcement of all such
regulatory laws. Nevertheless it was not long before
the legality and constitutionality of these automobile
registration and license laws were tested in a number
of State court proceedings.
New Jersey was one of the first States to pass a
motor vehicle registration law and soon after its
passage its supreme court was invoked to pass upon
the constitutionality of this enactment. The act
was passed by the legislature in 1905 and was entitled
“An act defining motor vehicles and providing for the
registration of the same and uniform rules regulating
the use and the speed thereof.’’ It provided, in ad-
dition to certain traffic regulations, that the applicant
for a license must make a written statement contain-
ing his name, address, description and character of
automobile, name of maker, manufacturer’s number,
and horsepower, and pay a registry fee of $1.
The single question presented to the court was
whether these provisions were constitutional. (Unwen
v. State, 44 Vroom. (N. J.) 530.) In approaching
this question the court stated that the manner in
which public streets and highways should be used had
been the subject of frequent legislation, that the con-
trol of such use had often been delegated by the legis-
lature, and that such legislation was considered
essential to the safety and comfort of those who use
the public highway.
In developing its line of reasoning the court cited
as precedents cases which dealt with regulations
respecting the use of streets by street railway com-
panies. (North Hudson County Railway v. Hoboken,
12 Vroom 71; Trenton Horse Railroad Company v.
Trenton, 24 Vroom 132; Cape May Railroad Company
v. Cape May, 30 Vroom 393.) Pedestrians, drivers,
and occupants of horse-drawn vehicles using the same
streets, the court said, were faced with new dangers
upon the introduction of heavy cars propelled by
electricity and capable of great speed. For the
purpose of protecting the former users of the highway
regulations were made which limited the speed of these
cars among other things, and also required that licenses
be obtained for each car. Such regulations were up-
held by the courts and were regarded as legitimate
extensions of the State’s police power.
In turning from the electric street car to the auto-
mobile it was observed that motor vehicles operated
over the highways of the State were being propelled,
or capable of being propelled, at even greater speed
than street cars. The menace of these machines,
driven by reckless, inexperienced, and incompetent per-
sons, to all persons using the highways was obvious to
everyone. The court considered the right of the legis-
lature to protect other users of the State’s streets and
roads against the dangers accruing from the operation
of the automobile as much justified as those regulations
which restricted the operation of the street car. Those
provisions of the automobile law which limited the
speed and which required the display of lights and the
sounding of signals by automobile operators were con-
sidered necessary in order to protect the general public
in its use of the highways.
These requirements, in the opinion of the court,
would be useless if those violating them could not be
detected and punished. The license and registration
features were provided so as to aid to the identification
of the vehicles and of those responsible for their opera-
tion. The law was attacked on the score that the
required license fee of $1 was a tax upon the automobile
and thus constituted a species of double taxation which
<a unconstitutional by the opponents of
the law.
NEW JERSEY COURT HOLDS LICENSE FEE IS NOT A PROPERTY TAX
The court held that this license fee could not be
regarded as a tax upon property. It was not imposed
upon the vehicle as such but upon the use of the vehicle
upon the public roads. It was a settled question, as
pomted out by the court, that under the police power
a license fee could be imposed which did not exceed
the necessary expense of issuing the license and _ of
carrying on the work and activities incidental to the
inspection and regulation of motor-vehicle operation.
In the eyes of the court this kind of automobile license
legislation did not in any way conflict with the provi-
sions of the Constitution of the State of New Jersey
nor with any section of the Federal Constitution. It
has been argued that legislation of this character by a
State was an interference with interstate commerce
and that it denied to nonresidents the equal protection
of the laws. The court stated that the only question
which the Federal courts would consider in dealing
with legislation of this character was whether the regu-
lations with respect to the operation of motor vehicles
were within the legitimate exercise of a State’s police
power.
The Federal Supreme Court had taken a very decided
stand on this question in the Slaughterhouse cases (16
Wall. 36). In other States where similar issues were
presented to the courts the legality and constitutionality
of automobile license laws were upheld as an exercise
of the police power. The contestants in all of these
cases were evidently satisfied with the views and find-
ings of the State courts because the issue was not pre-
sented to the United States Supreme Court at this
time even though in a number of instances nonresident
automobile owners were protesting the legality of such
license measures passed by the several States.
The nature of the evolution of automobile registra-
tion and regulatory statutes passed by many of the
States, as the number of motor vehicles kept on in-
creasing and the problems of highway development
and maintenance began to emerge, is again illustrated
by amendments made to the New Jersey law and by
the opinion of the supreme court upholding its con-
stitutionality and reasonableness. In 1908, three
years after the first law was passed, New Jersev raised
its annual registration fee to 83 for registering an
automobile of less than 30 horsepower and $5 for each
automobile of 380 horsepower or more, and fees were
provided for licenses issued to drivers. This new
legislation also provided that nonresidents would be
required over their own signatures to designate the
seretary of state as their agent within the State upon
whom service could be made in case they were charged
with a violation of any of the regulatory provisions of
the act growing out of the operation of their cars over
the streets and highways of the State.
Although the State’s nght to require the registra-
tion of motor vehicles and to exact a license fee had
heen upheld as an exercise of the police power, the
validity of this new legislation was again attacked in
the courts on the following grounds: First, because
a tax was imposed upon automobiles not according to
their true value but according to the horsepower of
each automobile; second, that it was a system of
double taxation in that the loeal assessor had already
levied a tax upon this kind of property: third, that
automobiles were singled out and put into a special
class for purposes of taxation and that other kinds of
property of similar character were excluded; and,
fourth, that the requirement that nonresident owners
and operators of motor vehicles must designate an
agent upon whom legal processes could be served was a
discrimination against citizens of other States and that
the tax was a burden upon interstate commerce and a
violation of the fourteenth amendment of the Federal
Constitution. (Cleary v. Johnston, 50 Vroom (N. J.),
49.)
THE USE OF LICENSE FEES FOR ROAD MAINTENANCE QUESTIONED
It was contended by the objectors to this new act
that its validity could not be sustained on the same
grounds upon which the legality of the former act had
been upheld because of the increase in the amount
of the fees charged for registration, and that it had
been transformed from a regulatory measure into a
revenue measure for the reason that this revised enact-
ment provided that the money thus collected and
not needed in the administration of the law should
be used as a fund for the repair of improved roads.
The surplus funds were to be apportioned by the
State treasurer among the counties of the State
‘according to the mileage of improved roads in each
county, to be used for the repair of said roads.”
While the court did not definitely pass upon the power
of the State to collect fees from automobiles which
were to be used for highway purposes, it intimated
that if such fees were imposed for revenue purposes
the legislature had probably not exceeded its powers
ir that regard. The rules laid down in the previous
case, in the opinion of the court, disposed of the
constitutional objections raised against this act as a
regulatory measure. The revenue aspects were con-
sidered more fully in a subsequent opinion where that
issue Was pressed more seriously. At the time when
this case was decided the court suggested that the facts
introduced into the record to show that the fees which
were collected actually exceeded all of the costs incur-
red by the State and the local authorities in the admin-
istration of the law in all of its regulatory aspects were
not sufficient to establish the fact.
So far as the objections were concerned which were
urged by nonresidents, the court pointed out that,
While the right of a nonresident to travel over the
highways of the State was more than a privilege, the
nonresident did not have an absolute right to the use
of the highway. The restrictions in the law were
largely safety measures, the court said, and applied to
both residents and nonresidents alike. According
to the court, the inherent speed of the automobile
made it practically impossible to enforce the operating
restrictions as to speed and mode of operation except
through penalties imposed after infraction of such
rules. The provision that nonresidents in taking
out licenses for operating automobiles within the
State give power of attorney to the secretary of state
to accept legal service was a device for bringing non-
resident violators of the State’s automobile regulations
before the courts of the State for trial in the same
manner as residents of the State were tried for similar
offenses. In the light of these facts it could not be
considered that there was an interference with their
constitutional rights. Both residents and non-
residents were placed upon the same plane of legal
action.
THE USE OF LICENSE FEES FOR ROAD PURPOSES UPHELD
This pronouncement of the supreme court still did
not satisfy the opponents of this particular law and they
succeeded in bringing a second case involving the
validity of the 1908 motor vehicle tax law, this time
stressing the fact that the motor vehicle leense tax
yielded a very substantial sum over and above the ad-
ministrative costs and claiming that on that account it
was invalid and constituted in fact a burden upon in-
terstate commerce in defiance of the Federal Consti-
tution. The State supreme court upon further con-
sideration of this question held that the imposition of
license fees for revenue purposes was clearly within the
sovereign power of the State. (Kane v. New Jersey, 81
(N. J.) 594.)
When it was shown in the record that the receipts
derived from the automobile license taxes were so
large that a considerable part of them were used for
highway purposes the court took the position that
since the State had spent large sums of money on im-
proved highways, the facilities of interstate and in-
trastate commerce, it was entitled to make a charge
and exact a remuneration for the maintenance of such
public works. The theory of the automobile license
tax as to its purpose was thus extended to include
revenues for highway purposes in addition to a col-
lection of funds barely sufficient to meet the expenses
of administering regulations ordained and established
in the beginning as a part of the State’s police power.
The license tax was thus made to serve a dual purpose.
In reviewing this matter, the court indicated that in
former times the State had created agencies such as
turnpike companies to construct and improve specified
sections of highways and had given them authority to
make certain charges for their use. What the State
had done along these lines indirectly it could do di-
rectly, and the license tax could rightly be regarded as
a fee for the use of the roads built wholly or in part by
the State or by any of its political subdivisions. It had
been observed that the rapidly moving motor vehicles
brought about a rapid deterioration of the road surface
and made necessary high maintenance expenditures.
The motor vehicle tax law imposed upon the owners of
all these vehicles driven over the roads a charge for the
purpose of highway maintenance and upkeep. The
court saw no objection to the State charging a lump
sum for this use instead of a toll or mileage fee, and a
classification of automobiles according to horsepower,
in the opinion of the court, reflected to a certain degree
the extent of the use and could be regarded as a reason-
able classification. The legislature had prescribed a
reasonable mode of measurement. The conclusions of
the court are stated in the final paragraph:
The imposition is a license or privilege tax charged in the
nature of compensation for the damage done to the roads of the
State by the driving of these machines over them, and is properly
based not upon the value of the machine but upon the amount
of destruction caused by it.
When Michigan attempted to add the revenue or
tax feature to its motor vehicle registration law the
supreme court refused to sustain the new legislation
on constitutional grounds which were more or less
technical in character. In 1913 the legislature passed
an amendment to the motor vehicle administration
act of 1909 which provided for a license fee graduated
according to horsepower instead of a flat fee. It was
estimated that under the new law the revenues per
motor vehicle would average about £12; under the
former law a flat fee of only $3 per vehicle was col-
lected when the license was issued. The amendment
also provided that the revenues accruing from these
new license fees should be devoted to highway pur-
poses and that automobiles should thereafter be ex-
empted from all property tax assessments. The
supreme court held that the new act was a revenue
act and that the amount of fees derived under this
licensing law was far in excess of the necessary expenses
of registration and administration. While the police-
power feature was still a part of this act, 1t was held
that the tax feature had been introduced through the
advance in the fees and that in doing so the title of the
original act, which made no provision for the taxation
of motor vehicles, had been retained by the amenda-
tory act. On the ground that the legislative procedure
had been irregular the new law was held invalid.
(Vernor v. Secretary of State, 179 Michigan, 157.)
LICENSE FEES HELD TO BE aoe TAXES—NOT PROPERTY
TAXES
At the next session of the Jegislature (1915) the act
was passed again, this time clearly indicating in the
title that it was for the purpose of raising revenues as
well as an exercise of the police power. This new act
was promptly appealed to the supreme court but the
schedule of license fees was duly upheld. (Jasnowsk1
v. Board of Assessors, 191 Michigan, 287.) The title
of the new act was as follows:
An act to provide for the registration, *
* * regulation
of motor vehicles, * * * and to provide for levying specific
taxes upon such vehicles, * * * and to provide for the dis-
ae
and to exempt from all
*
position of such funds,
other
taxation such motor vehicles so specifically taxed 4
*
)
and that the technical objection to the form and sub-
stance of the act was not well taken.
The contention was also made that the legislature
exceeded its power when it exempted the automobiles
operated on the highways from the regular ad valorem
tax and substituted for it this new scale of motor
vehicle license fees. Here the court admitted that it
was within the provinee of the legislature to determine
what class of property should be taxed and what class
should not be taxed except where there was an
interference with provisions of the Constitution.
The legislature had exercised its discretionary power:
the court could not say whether this was done wisely
or justly.
The final objection that was made was that the act
provided for the collection of money by taxation of
owners of vehicles in cities and villages to be expended
on the rural highways. The court, in answer to this,
pointed out that under the constitution the State was
authorized to engage in works of internal improve-
ment. The construction and maintenance of high-
ways were considered to be works of this class. This
constitutional provision, or rather permission, there-
fore, furnished the basis for the action of the legislature
in disbursing the fund collected from automobile
operators; and the legislature had the power to
determine which roads should be improved first,
knowing that not all the streets and roads of the
State could be improved at one and the same time.
It is interesting to note in this connection that the
court refrained from advancing the toll-road theory in
trying to justify the collection of fees from persons
owing motor vehicles and residing in cities and villages
which did not benefit directly in having any of these
highway funds allocated for the improvement of their
streets. The argument that these city dwellers used
the rural highways probably as much as the rural
population and could therefore be charged for such
use was not presented. In other cases this reason 1s
considered of great weight.
HIGH MOTOR VEHICLE FEES MUST BE PREDICATED ON NEED OF
HIGHWAY REVENUE
That the legislature must clearly predicate high
motor vehicle fees upon the theory that such revenues
are desired for highway purposes and that in the pas-
sage of such an act the revenue feature must be clearly
brought out is exemplified in Alabama’s attempt to
increase its motor vehicle fees from a nominal sum
charged for licenses to rather substantial fees based on
Among the objections to the act there was the con-
tention that the title provided for both regulation and
taxation, two distinct objects. The court stated that
whether or not the act should be declared invalid de-
pended upon the nature of the tax which this new law
imposed. In settling this question it had to be de-
termined whether the new tax was in the nature of a
property tax or a privilege tax. If it could be re-
garded as a property tax the court intimated that the
contention of the objectors was well founded. Grant-
ing that the legislature, in the exercise of the police
ower, could enact a regulatory statute in which regu-
tion and taxation were so blended as to have but a
single purpose, the court concluded this tax was in-
tended as a privilege tax rather than a property tax
horsepower. The act passed in 1913 was presented to
the supreme court for judicial review and was declared
unconstitutional. (State v. Lawrence, 61 South. 975
(Alabama).) The attorney general in presenting his
case to the court maintained that the statute was not
a revenue measure but a police measure pure and sim-
ple; that the matter of taxation was not involved.
The court held that the State had, without any doubt,
the right to regulate the use of its highways and that
in doing so it could compel the registration and num-
bering of automobiles; that 1t could impose fees which
would compensate the State for the expenses and costs
which such legistation entailed, but that such fees had
to be reasonable and fair considering the object to be
attained and all the surrounding facts. Inasmuch as
the fees varied from $5 to $25 and the registration ex-
pense was estimated to be not over $1, the court con-
J0
cluded that the revenue feature of the law appeared to
be all important, and that if it was the purpose of the
legislature to exercise only the police power 1t had gone
too far in adopting such a high scale of fees, the court
ruled, therefore, that the statute was void in that it
violated the due process clause of the State and Fed-
eral Constitutions.
California in 1913 passed a motor-vehicle act which
provided for a scale of license fees based on horsepower.
The law was contested in the courts and its constitu-
tionality was passed upon by the supreme court in
1914. It was contended by those opposing the law
that the classification of motor vehicles according to
horsepower was illegal, but the court in upholding the
law stated that it regarded this method of classifica-
tion as ‘fan attempt on the part of the legislature to
apportion the license fees with some reference to the
destructive or wearing power of cach motor vehicle.”
(ix parte Schuler, 167 Cal. 282.) While the horse-
power basis might not be considered as an absolutely
scientific method of determining road wear, the court
could not say that it was an unjustified method. Auto-
mobiles of high power were usually heavier than auto-
mobiles of low power and the damage done to the road
by the heavier vehicles was considered greater than
that done by the lighter cars. Speed, which is another
factor in road wear, was not mentioned by the court.
UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT DECLARES LAWS CONSTITUTIONAL
The constitutionality of legislation passed by States
providing for a license tax upon automobiles to be paid
by both residents and nonresidents was finally passed
upon by the United States Supreme Court. The New
Jersey case was appealed to the Federal courts and
another case arose out of a similar enactment by Mary-
land. (Hendrick v. Maryland, 235 U. 8. 610 (1915 )
Kane v. New Jersey, 242 U.S. 160 (1916). In unan-
mous opinions the Supreme Court held that the licens-
ing of automobiles and of drivers and the charging of
fees graduated according to horsepower was an exercise
of the police power of a State and that its purpose was
to preserve the health, safety, and comfort of its citizens.
The revenue features of this character of legislation were
also upheld by the Supreme Court on the grounds that
when a State at its own expense furnished special facil-
ties, such as improved lighways, it might charge special
compensation for their use whether the users were resi-
dents or nonresidents. After these decisions there was
no longer any doubt as to the nght of the States to
charge motor vehicle heense fees which were designed
to produce highway revenues in addition to the amounts
of money necessary to administer such licensing laws
asa part of a State's police power. The fees paid could
not be regarded as property taxes and the States were
authorized to establish reasonable classifications upon
which such charges could be based.
LITIGATION WITH RESPECT TO GASOLINE TAXES
When a number of the States began to pass laws pro-
viding for a tax upon gasoline a new phase of motor-
vehicle taxation was developed. The courts were
again invoked to determine whether or not such a tax
could be considered valid upon constitutional grounds.
The Supreme Court of Arkansas was called upon to re-
view this question soon after the passage of an act of
the legislature (1921) instituting a tax of 1 cent per
allon upon all gasoline sold within the State which was
Or
te)
to be used in propelling motor vehicles. The law pro-
vided that all persons or corporations selling gasoline to
be used in propelling motor vehicles over the highways
of the State should collect from the purchaser of such
gasoline 1 cent per gallon in addition to the regular
price and remit the amount of money thus collected to
the State, which in turn would distribute one-half to
the general road fund of the county in which the tax
was collected and one-half to the State highway 1m-
provement fund. Other sections of the act required
wholesale distributors and retail dealers to file monthly
reports showing the sales of gasoline used for such pur-
poses.
The opponents of this new kind of tax contended
that it constituted a property tax on gasoline and was
therefore void because it violated the constitutional
provision of uniformity. The question for the court to
decide was whether or not the gasoline tax was a prop-
erty tax, because it was conceded by all parties to the
action that if it was there was a violation of the uni-
formity principle. (Standard Oil Co. v. Brodie, 239
S. W. 753 (Ark.).) The language of the act disclosed
that it was neither the intention of the legislature to
impose a tax upon gasoline nor upon its sale, nor even
upon its use, but that the tax was essentially a tax upon
the use of motor vehicles on the public highways. The
extent of the use was measured by the amount of gas-
oline consumed which resulted in a tax on motor-
vehicle operation in accordance with the use made of
the highways. This interpretation disposed of the ob-
jection to the tax on the grounds that it was a prop-
erty tax.
It was also argued by the objectors to this statute
that 1t was a species of double taxation in that the
legislature had already placed a tax upon the users of
the highway in the form of an automobile license fee.
The court disposed of this proposition in a rather
ingenious fashion. It held that the license fee could be
regarded as a tax upon the privilege of using the high-
ways according to the capacity of the car, while the
gasoline tax was an additional tax upon the privilege of
using the highways according to the extent of the actual
use. In adopting this point of view the court adopted
the principle of charging for highway use which has
been developed in the theory of public-utility rates and
charges. [lectric-power rates, for example, are based
upon these same two factors—capacity and use; a flat
readiness-to-serve charge is made, based on the con-
sumer’s capacity to use the service, and an additional
charge 1s made for the current actually used. The
former charge is designed to cover to a large extent the
capacity costs or fixed charges and the latter charge
covers the direct operating expenses. The gasoline tax
in combination with an annual license fee follows the
same principle.
It was also brought to the attention of the court that
the gasoline tax afforded means of evasion to those
motor-vehicle operators who lived close to the borders
of the State and who could purchase their supphes of
gasoline in adjoining States which did not have a gas-
oline tax and that such a possibility of evasion consti-
tuted a discrimination against others who were com-
pelled by their location to pay the tax. The court
admitted the possibihty of such an evasion of the
gasoline tax, but held that it did not render the statute
arbitrarily discriminatory in a legal sense.
(Continued on page 14.)
11
PILATUS OF THE MOTOR TRUCK IMPACT TESTS OF
THE BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS
By C. A. HOGENTOGLER, Associate Highway Engineer, United States Bureau of Public Roads
took an investigation of motor-truck impact.
The object of the research was two-fold—first, to
determine the forces to which pavements are subjected,
and, second, to determine the resistance to these forces
of various types of road surfaces.
on years ago the Bureau of Public Roads under-
eamenngreeen
A truck wheel about to drop from a 2-inch elevation upon the piston head of the
hydraulic jack used for transmission of the impact to the copper cylinders. The
channel guard in the lower foreground was used to prevent recording the impact of
the front wheels. It was pulled away in time for the passage of the rear wheels
From time to time reports of several phases of the in-
vestigation have been published in Pusiic Roaps,’
all of which have dealt with the measurement of
impact forces and the effect of such forces on specimen
slabs of pavement constructed at the Arlington I’xperi-
mental Farm, Arlington, Va.
In the first stages of the investigation efforts were
directed to the determination of the forces of impact
delivered by moving trucks to road surfaces. The
effect of the impact upon the surface was not con-
sidered. To determine the impact forces, motor
trucks were driven over obstructions or drops placed im
the roadway and the impact of the wheels on striking
the obstruction or falling over the drop was received on
the piston head of a hydraulic jack which transmitted
the force of the blow to a small copper evlinder set
between the piston and the bottom of the jack cylinder.
The copper cylinders were calibrated under static
pressures and their deformation by any given static
force was known. It was assumed that an Impact
which caused deformation of the copper cylinders equal
to that caused by a given static force would be equal to
the static force. While these tests indicated that the
impact of a motor truck wheel striking the surface of a
1 “<The bow and why of truck impact,’’ Public Roads, volume 3, No. 31, Novem-
ber, 1920.
“Motor truck impact tests of the Bureau of Public Roads,’”’ Public Roads, volume
de G. 60, larch, 1921. =.
“Tests of impact on pavements by the Bureau of Public Roads,’’ Public Roads
volume 4, No. 6, October, 1921.
“Pests of impact on pavements by the Bureau of Public Roads,’’ Public Roads,
volume 4, No. 7, November, 1921.
‘Motor truck impact tests of the Bureau of Public Roads,”’ Public Roads, volume
4, No. 8, November, 1921. s
‘‘Impact tests on concrete pavement slabs,’’? Public Roads, volume 5, No. 2,
April, 1924.
road might be several times as great as the statie load
on the truck wheel, it was found that the impact force
indicated was not as great as the maximum impact
which would be delivered to the road without inter-
position of the copper cylinder, for two reasons: First,
the copper cylinder itself, in deforming under the
impact, to that extent cushioned the blow and, by
reducing the deceleration, reduced the impact; second,
the copper cylinder deformation was a measure of the
work done upon the cylinder and not the maximum
impact delivered to it. At the instant of contact of
wheel and piston head the force of impact is zero. As
deformation of the copper evlinder progresses the
impact increases. The average force or resistance of
the copper multiphed by the deformation or distance
through which it acts is equal to the energy appled
(heating and elastic effect neglected). This reasoning
led to the conclusion that the foree measured by the
copper cylinder was the average force of impact and
not the maximum. |
THE TESTING OF SLABS BEGUN
The next phase of the investigation introduced the
testing of sections or slabs of pavement of various kinds
to ascertain their behavior under impact. To deliver
the impact a machine was designed which, as shown by
the illustration on page 12, consisted of a loaded box
riding on a 514-ton truck spring which, in turn, was sup-
ported by a loaded plunger on the bottom of which
was a double 2-inch by 6-inch solid rubber tire. The
box and plunger representing the sprung and unsprung
weights, respectively, could be so loaded as to repre-
Looking down on the hydraulic jack used for transmission of impact to copper evlin-
The copper cylinder held in the hand is placed in the bottom of the jack
The blow of the truck wheel is delivered to it through the piston
ders.
cylinder.
sent a truck of any size. By means of a motor, gears,
and cam the plunger or unpsrung weight carrying the
spring and sprung weight could be lifted and dropped
from any height so that the effect would be identical
with that of a truck wheel dropping from one level to
another.
Impacts delivered in this way were applied to a
series of 7-foot square slabs of various paving materials.
The problem of measuring the force of the blows delivered
was met by the development of an autographic process
for determuning the maximum declaration of the falling
load. Multiplying this deceleration by the mass of the
i
7
Py ig
A general view of the first type of impact machine
plunger, spring, and loads gave as a result the impact
in pounds corresponding to any drop of the machine.
The autographic apparatus consisted of a strip of
silicated paper which was moved horizontally over a
5-inch drum at a rate recorded by means of an instru-
ment designed to break electrical contact every second
and thus cause a movement of a time-recording point
against the paper. ‘Three other points attached,
respectively, to the unsprung weight, the sprung weight,
and the slab and bearing against the moving paper
recorded the vertical movements of cach when the
plunger was dropped upon the slab. The graphs thus
formed measured time by their horizontal distances
and vertical movements by vertical distances. By
mathematical analysis of them it was possible to derive
the velocity of the falling load and the deceleration of
the velocity from the instant
when the rubber tire struck
the slab until the downward
velocity was reduced to zero.
For the purpose of such an-
alysis the autographic curves,
a typical sample of which is
reproduced on this page, were
enlarged several times by
means of an accurate panto-
graph.
Impact forces delivered to
the first series of experimental
slabs were measured in this
way and their effect on the
slabs was determined by not-
ing the height of fall and im-
pact required to cause failure
of the various slabs. Reports
of this series of tests were
published in Pusiic Roaps
for October, November, and
December, 1921.
Apparatus for recording space-time
curves of motor truck impact
.
-
L
THE TESTING OF THE SECOND SERIES OF SLABS
Upon the completion of these tests a new series of
slabs was constructed including a wider range of de-
signs, and work was begun on the construction of a
new type of machine for delivering and measuring
impact forces. The machine which was finally de-
veloped was far more compact and easier to move from
slab to slab than the one used in the earlier tests; and
for the measurement of the impact force the autographic
space-time apparatus was supplanted by an acceler-
ometer to measure the acceleration directly and reduce
the time and labor required in the interpretation of the
test results.
The work of developing and calibrating a type of
accelerometer suitable for the purpose was one of the
most difficult phases of the entire investigation. The
problems involved were satisfactorily solved, however,
and the perfected accelerometer was used in connection
with the new impact machine for the testing of the
second series of slabs, the results of which were pub-
lished in Pusiic Roaps for April, 1924.
In the testing of the first series of slabs the behavior
of the slabs could be determined only by observation
of the occurrence of cracks and the deflection of the
slabs following the blows delivered. No means were
available for the measurement of the deformation of the
slabs under the impact blows. Therefore the develop-
ment of the graphic strain gauge which, when embedded
TIME RECORD
SS
SLAB MOVEMENT
UNSPRUNG WEIGHT MOVEMENT
SPRUNG WEIGHT MOVEMENT
A typieal space-time record of a single drop of the impact machine
in the slab, was found to give an accurate record of the
deformation of the experimental section constituted one
of the distinct advances of the second series of slab
experiments.
In all the work up to this time the actual impact
delivered by motor trucks to road surfaces was measured
at one location on an actual road and corresponding
impacts were then delivered to the experimental pave-
ment slabs by means of the impact machines at another
location.
THE CURRENT INVESTIGATIONS
The investigation has now entered a third stage in
which the force of the impact delivered by an actual
truck to an actual road is measured simultaneously with
the effect of the blow on the road surface. Records of
accelerometers mounted on the moving truck permit
computations for the former, while graphic strain
gauges inserted in the road surface indicate the stress
produced in the slab, and thus show the latter.
In determining the magnitude of impacts found on
ordinary roads, the current investigation goes further
than those that preceded it in that 1t inquires into the
causes of the impacts as well as their magnitudes.
In this study the profile of the road surface as given
by a 16-wheel profilometer is correlated with acceler-
ometer records. This phase of the work in itself
should be of special interest to the construction engi-
neer since it opens up a means of determining whether
or not a finished pavement has the proper degree of
4
ie:
vf
ke
4S
J
G
t
o
i
‘s
i
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|
smoothness. Jf it should not have, records from
these instruments will indicate the exact location of
the troublesome areas or obnoxious bumps. It is not
an extravagant prediction to say that in the very near
future the acceptable degree of road smoothness will be
determined by properly standardized instruments
either mounted on a standard vehicle or towed behind
it at specified speeds. The State highway departments
of both New York and Illinois are now experimenting
with apparatus of this character. New York uses the
Vialog, an instrument which is attached to an auto-
mobile and which measures the deflection of the front
spring, while in Illinois a 16-wheel profilometer is drawn
by a truck and gives an accurate profile of the road.
Briefly stated, the present investigation was designed
to secure definite information in regard to the wheel
impacts as influenced by road roughness, vehicle de-
sign, load, speed, and tire equipment, and, as stated
before, the resistance of the various pavement surfaces
to these impacts.
PROCEDURE IN THE CURRENT INVESTIGATIONS
Procedure in this investigation is simple. Furst,
representative sections of the various types of pave-
ments commonly used, such as concrete, brick, granite
block, and bituminous combinations are selected and
marked off. A general indication of the roughness of
these sections as compared with that of all available
lengths of similar pavement is secured from an instru-
ment similar to the Vialog which is mounted on a tour-
ing car. The actual profiles of the test sections are se-
cured by means of a 16-wheel profilometer.
Over these selected sections of road are then run the
test trucks, which range from 1 to 5 tons capacity.
The truck variables include four speeds and three load-
ings—empty, capacity, and overload—-and four kinds
of tires—pneumatic, cushion, new and wornsolid. By
means of accelerometers attached to the trucks, records
of the accelerations and the accompanying spring de-
flections and speed of travel will be obtained. With
this information and a knowledge of the sprung and
unsprung weights, a computation of the force of the
blow is quickly made.
After the impacts occurring on normal roads have
been determined, they will be reproduced on the ex-
perimental test road and their effects will be recorded
by the graphic strain gauges which indicate the stress
occurring in the concrete sections. This procedure has
been made possible only because of the development
of the graphic strain gauge and the accelerometers.
The development and calibration of the apparatus
constitute the most difficult phase of the impact inves-
tigations. In the case of the graphic strain gauge it
was essential to have a device which would accurately
measure fiber deformations ranging from zero to several
ten-thousandths of an inch and at the same time be so
small as to be conveniently inserted in a road slab under
a truck wheel. While several accelerometers are avail-
able commercially, none of them answered the test
requirements, which were that the apparatus must be
capable of measuring accelerations ranging from zero to
1,000 fect per second and at the same time be sturdy
enough to function properly when subjected to the
vibration caused by its being attached to a rapidly
moving motor truck. In addition to the mechanical
difficulties, we were faced by the fact that authorities
disagreed as to the practicability of securing usable
force values from accelerometer records.
2]
o)
THE ACCURACY OF THE ACCELEROMETER RECORDS
The feeling of doubt existing among engineers as to
the practicability of determining impact forces from
accelerometer records is expressed by C. D. Young,
past president of the American Society for Testing
Materials, in a discussion of a paper entitled ‘ Aeceler-
ometer for measuring impact,” presented before that
body by IE. B. Smith, of the Bureau of Public Roads
Mr. Young is quoted as follows:
The earliest testing of railway materials was largely by the
impact method, namely, by drop testing. That is still the case
in the testing of rails. At one time couplers, bolts, and a great
deal of railroad material was tested by impact. Efforts were
made to translate the results of those impact tests into foree in
pounds. I believe it was the consensus of opinion through 20
or 30 years’ experience in that work that it was neither wise nor
safe to draw too definite conclusions in the translation of the
forces applied through acceleration into pounds loading equiva-
lent to static. A great deal depends upon the character of the
apparatus as to what the ratio factor should be in that transla-
tion. A great deal depends upon the mass back of the resistance,
and, as I understand the paper, in this particular ease it would
be the mass of the vehicle carrying the instrument. In addition
to that the character of the springs would be a determining factor
in the translation of those forces into pounds, in the same way
that the character of the spring bed supporting the anvil of a
* he oe ga ’
&
la A ee
The latest type of impact machine
drop-testing machine has its effect upon the translation of the
falling tup to the effect upon the metal and deflection of the metal.
In other words, by changing springs in the anvil or the support
of the piece deflected under accelerated drop test you can decid-
edly change the deflection for the same height of fall with the
same material. So I feel that where data are obtained through
accelerated movement, as in this instance, the attempt to trans-
late into pounds of force should be made very cautiously.”
Happily, it can now be said that the calibration of
the instruments has cleared away the doubts and has
substantiated previous assumptions and shown con-
clusively that the instruments to be used in the current
investigation accurately perform the work for which
they were designed. :
When all of the data from this investigation have
finally been secured and analyzed, it is confidently hoped
that 1t will be possible to say definitely just what types
of vehicles, tires, and loads the various road surfaces
can safely support. By correlating this information
with that secured from traffic surveys, a simple mathe-
matical calculation will suffice to determine the best
combinations of road and vehicle for economic motor
transport. Information of this character is of prime
importance to the legislator as well as the engineer.
2 Proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, vol. 23, 1923, Pt. IT
p. 633.
14
LEGISLATION SHOULD WATT FOR TEST RESULTS
With the rapid development of motor vehicle
transportation need for new laws and regulations
arose, and in the absence of definite information many
of them were based on more or less scientific guesses.
For instance, many laws are based on total wheel
load alone. They serve their purpose very well
when the truck is not in motion, for a wheel at rest is
a definite, tangible quantity which can exert no
greater pressure than its static weight. The instant
the wheel is set in motion, however, a different con-
dition develops.
As the truck moves along a road surface variations,
tire roughness, variations in rubber composition, etc.,
cause the wheels to mount vertically, after which the
force of gravity and spring pressure cause them to
return to the road, and make them capable of delivering
forces ranging from their static weights to amounts
eight or ten times as great. These forces are dependent
upon the vertical velocities acquired and the time or
distance in which these velocities are reduced to zero.
That this change in velocity or deceleration as well as
the accompanying force is due largely to the type of
cushion existing between the falling body and stopping
agency is shown by the following experiment:
A lead weigh of 9 pounds was dropped from the same
height—one-half-inch—on five different springs and
the resulting forces indicated by the spring deflections
were recorded. These springs were previously cali-
brated under static loads and were found to have
stiffness ranging from 31 to 400 pounds per inch
deflection. The 9-pound weight when dropped on the
31-pound spring indicated a pressure of 50 pounds,
when dropped on the 50-pound spring a pressure of 68
younds was registered, on the 190-pound spring the
as of the blow was 121 pounds, and when dropped
on the 400-pound spring, a pressure of 173 pounds was
recorded.
It will be remembered that the forces in the first
impact tests were computed from a relation between
the falling weight, the total fall, and the cushion or the
distance in which the weight was brought to rest.
Applying that same relation to a considerable number
of drops from different heights of the 9-pound weight
on the five different springs, a curve was secured which
indicates that so long as an elastic cushion is used the
maximum force of the blow is entirely dependent upon
the percentage of cushion to total height of fall. This
relation held with few exceptions, for the impacts
delivered by the truck impact machine during the recent
calibration work just as it did for the small springs.
Data available to date indicate that pressures deliv-
ered by the wheels of a moving motor truck vary just
as much as those of the small weight cited above.
Our previous tests have shown that a badly worn solid
tire can deliver an impact seven times as great as the
static wheel load. In one instance the difference in
corner deflection caused by a 2,000-pound wheel load
with new and very badly worn solid tires was 1,600 per
cent. [tis interesting to note in this case that the great-
est deflection under the 2,000-pound wheel load was
double the normal deflection under an 8,000-pound
Wheel load with a new solid tire. Pneumatic tires, on
the other hand, seem to definitely limit the impact.
In no case, using obstructions up to and as high as 4
inches, has it been possible to record pressures under
pneumatic tires greater than double the static weight.
Vehicle design also causes variation in wheel pressure.
During the present tests we have indications that with
one type of truck accelerations increase with both
height of drop and speed, while with another a limiting
impact seems to have been reached before maximum
drop and speed have been reached.
When, as noted above, it is indicated that a 2,000-
pound load can be more detrimental to a slab than one
of 8,000 pounds, the fallacy of basing design and
legislation on the wheel load is plainly seen. The
above results, however, can be taken only as indications,
since they are the result in some cases of questionable
ussumptions. We are now equipped with instruments
and knowledge with which all of these questions can be
quickly and definitely settled. That is the status of
the impact tests at present. The most difficult part
of the work, that of securing proper instruments of
measurement and determining correct methods of
interpreting results, has been completed. From this
time it is expected that results from actual road tests
will be secured rapidly.
(Continued from page 10)
UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT PASSES ON VALIDITY OF GASOLINE
Although the State supreme court upheld the consti-
tutionality of the gasoline tax statute passed by the
Arkansas legislature, efforts were made by one of the
large oil companies to have the law set aside as being
in conflict with the Federal Constitution, and pro-
ceedings were brought in the district Federal court to
enjoin the tax officials from the collection of the tax.
The matter was finally appealed to the United States
Supreme Court, which held that it did not come into
conflict with the Federal Constitution. (Pierce Oil
Sorporation v. Luther Hopkins et al. (Decided Feb,
18, 1924).) It was claimed that the due-process clause
of the Constitution was violated in that the tax was
levied as a privilege tax for the use of the highways
upon the purchasers of the gasoline but that the collec-
tion of the tax was imposed upon the distributors, who
were obliged to make monthly payments and reports,
and that this constituted an appreciable expense to
them. The court refused to consider this a denial of
any constitutional rights, and in doing so stated that a
State had the power to regulate the business of selling
gasoline and also the power to tax the privilege of car-
rying on that business and that the due process clause
of the Federal Constitution did not prevent the State
from imposing this incidental burden growing out of
the collection of a gasoline tax.
This analysis of State and Federal court opinions
incheates that the principle of licensing motor vehicles
both for the purpose of police regulation and for high-
Wav revenues has been definitely approved by the
courts as to its constitutionality. The gasoline tax
likewise has been found to be not in conflict with any
constitutional provisions except in so far as certain
States have constitutions which definitely prohibit
revenue measures of that kind. Where such situa-
tions exist they can and are being met by amendments
submitted to the voters for their approval in cases where
State legislatures contemplate the introduction of a
gasoline tax to secure revenues for highway purposes.
ROAD MATERIAL TESTS AND INSPECTION NEWS
AN ABRASION TEST FOR CRUSHED STONE
Tike Bureau of Public Roads wishes to call atten-
tion to a test for abrasion which may be applied
to samples of crushed stone. As is well known,
the present Deval abrasion test is only adapted to the
testing of rock samples where the individual fragments
are at least 2 inches in diameter. No method has as
yet been adopted for testing crushed stone in the
smaller sizes, such as 34 inch, 1 inch or 1% inches.
The bureau has been endeavoring to develop a test
of this nature for some time. Although the results
so far secured are not sufficiently complete to warrant
a recommendation for its general adoption it is
believed that this method, which has so far given
i6
PER CENT OF WEAR
GREYSTONE
ee
4 2
SIZE OF ROCK IN INCHES
Abrasion loss by crushed stone particles of various sizes
promising results, should be deseribed for the benefit
of others who may desire to work along the same line.
The method of test is as follows: The sample as
received is separated by means of screens with round
openings into as many of the following sizes as its
gradation will permit: 34 to 1 inch, 1 to t4y inches,
114 to 1% inches, 14% to 2 inches. Samples for test
are then secured by selecting 50 pieces of cach size,
which are tested for abrasion separately in) accord-
ance with the usual procedure. When a sample of
crushed stone is tested in this manner and the abrasion
losses compared as in the accompanying chart, an
interesting relation is observed, which may be stated as
follows: For a given sample of crushed stone the loss
by abrasion for cach size tested is proportional to the
size of the pieces Composing the test charge, provided
that the same number of pieces are used in cach case.
This relationship is, of course, only approximately
true. There are many factors which tend to impair it,
the most important of which are variations in shape of
the fragments, slight variations in size, ete. For this
reason it is well whenever making tests of this nature
to secure at least duplicate results for each size.
Assuming, however, that the relationship is approxi-
mately true, this method of test presents a means of
estimating the probable percentage of wear by the
standard method in eases where it is impossible to
make this determination directly. Referring to the
accompanying graph, it will be noted that the straight
line averaging the various points for each sample 1s
extended to the right until it intersects the ordinate
for the 2-inch size. The solid cireles on the 2-inch
ordinates in each chart represent the percentage of
loss by the standard Deval abrasion test. It will be
observed that in only one of the eight cases plotted
does the point where the straight line intersects the
2-inch ordinate differ more than 0.6 per cent from the
standard test result. This is true in spite of the fact
that the standard test results were secured upon hand-
broken samples, whereas the other values were ob-
tained by testing the product of the crusher. The
diserepancies that appear are Caused without doubt by
this difference in the character of the test pieces.
CHECK TESTS OF MATERIALS
The system of check testing materials undertaken
by the Bureau of Public Roads, in cooperation with
laboratories located in various parts of the country, is
continually yielding information of great interest to
testing engineers.
It has been possible already to detect and correct
many irregularities in laboratory procedure, most of
which were found to be due either to the laek of stand-
ard equipment or to the failure of operators to appre-
ciate the importance of details. The bureau desires to
take this opportunity of thanking tne various labora-
tories for their cooperation in the conduct of this work.
In connection with the results of check tests of ce-
ment, Ct-5, 1t seems advisable to call attention at this
(15)
16
(ime to a condition in regard to temperatures which
appears to be quite common. The accompanying
chart gives the temperatures of the laboratory air,
mixing water, moist closet, and storage water which
were reported by the 60 laboratories cooperating 1n
this test. It will be observed that there is a general
tendency to work at temperatures considerably above
the standard of 70° F. set by the specifications. These
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES (FAHRENHEIT)
STATE
LABORATORY AIR | MIXING WATER | MOIST CLOSET | STORAGE TANK
70 80 90 70 80 90 70 80 90 70 4680)
ARIZONA
CALIFORNIA
wou —| LABORATORY NO.
MISSOURI
NEBRASKA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW YORK
NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA .
OHIO
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND =m
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
DIST. OF COL.
GEORGIA
} BENNSTLVANIA
MASSACHUSETTS
OHIO
PENNSYLVANIA
TEXAS
Temperatures reported in check tests of cement sample Ct-5
tests were made during the latter part of July and the
Ist of August, 1924, “and the values are, of course,
higher than they would be in the winter throughout
the Northern States. The great bulk of cement test-
ing, however, is done during the spring and summer
months when temperatures. are Mlealast to be higher
everywhere. Although the exact amount of variation
from standard results that may be due to variations
in temperature alone is open to question, there can be
no doubt that efforts should be made to secure closer
adherence to standard requirements than is here re-
vealed. This is particularly true of both the mixing
water and moist closet temperatures, both of which
quite appreciably affect the test results.
In their inspection of laboratory conditions through-
out the country, representatives of the Bureau of Pub-
he Roads have found in general that very little at-
tempt is made to control this variable in the cement
laboratory. This is due in almost all cases to the ex-
pense involved in the installation of the proper form
of automatic temperature control apparatus. But,
when one considers that the disposition of cement
worth from $400 to $500 depends upon the result of
a single test it appears highly desirable that every pre-
caution possible be taken to insure compliance with
every detail of the specification.
It is unfortunate that most of the apparatus which
is adapted for controlling temperatures automatically
is expensive. This is especially true of any automatic
scheme for lowering temperatures. A complete refrig-
eration system is needed for best results, although con-
ditions can be somewhat improved by the use of ice.
Apparatus for raising temperatures to the standard,
on the other hand, is quite reasonable in price and easy
to install. For this reason it might be well to give
consideration to the proposition of raising the stand-
ard temperature from 70° F. (21° C.) to 77° F. (25° C.)
which is the standard for most laboratory operations.
It is beleved that comphance with the temperature
requirements of the specification could be much more
easily secured if this were done.
ry a
ROAD PUBLICATIONS OF BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS
Applicants are urgently requested to ask only for those publications in which they are
particularly interested. The Department can not undertake to supply complete sets
nor to send free more than one copy of any pubdlciation to any one person. The editions
of some of the publications are necessarily limited, and when the Department’s free supply
is exhausted and no funds are available for procuring additional copies, applicants are
referred to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, this city, who
has them for sale at a nominal price, under the law of January 12, 1895. Those publica-
tions in this list, the Department supply of which is exhausted, can only be secured by
purchase from the Superintendent of Documents, who is not authorized to furnish pub-
lications free.
DEPARTMENT BULLETINS
No. 105. Progress Report of Experiments in Dust Prevention
and Road Preservation, 1913.
*136. Highway Bonds. 20ce.
220. Road Models.
257. Progress Report of Experiments in Dust Prevention
and Road Preservation, 1914.
*314. Methods for the Examination of Bituminous Road
Materials. 10c.
*347. Methods for the Determination of the Physical
Properties of Road-Building Rock. 10ce.
*370. The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building Rock.
15c.
386. Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the Middle
Atlantic States, 1914.
387. Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the Southern
States, 1914.
388. Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the New
England States, 1914.
390. Public Road Mileage in the United States, 1914. <A
Summary.
*393. Economic Surveys of County Highway Improvement.
dnc.
407. Progress Reports of Experiments in Dust Prevention
and Road Preservation, 1915.
*463. Earth, Sand-Clay, and Gravel Roads. 15c.
*532. The Expansion and Contraction of Concrete and
Concrete Roads. 10ce.
*537. The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building Rock
in 1916, Including all Compression Tests. 5c.
*555. Standard Forms for Specifications, Tests, Reports,
and Methods of Sampling for Road Materials. 10c.
*583. Reports on Experimental Convict Road Camp, Ful-
ton County, Ga. 25e.
*586. Progress Reports of Experiments in Dust Prevention
and Road Preservation, 1916. 10c.
*660. Highway Cost Keeping. 10¢e.
670. The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building Rock
in 1916 and 1917.
*691. Typical Specifications for Bituminous Road Mate-
rials. 10c.
*704. Typical Specifications for Nonbituminous Road
Materials. 5c.
*724. Drainage Methods and Foundations for County
Roads. 20ce.
*1077. Portland Cement Concrete Roads. 15c.
*1132. The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building Rock
from 1916 to 1921, Inclusive. 10c.
* Department supply exhausted.
No.
No.
No.
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
1216. Tentative Standard Methods of Sampling and Test-
ing Highway Materials, adopted by the American
Association of State Highway Officials and ap-
proved by the Secretary of Agriculture for use in
connection with Federal-aid road construction.
1259. Standard Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges
adopted by the American Association of State High-
way Officials and approved by the Secretary of
Agriculture for use in connection with Federal aid
road construction.
DEPARTMENT CIRCULAR
. 94. TNT as a Blasting Explosive.
FARMERS’ BULLETINS
. *338 Macadam Roads. de.
*505. Benefits of Improved Roads. 5c.
SEPARATE REPRINTS FROM THE YEARBOOK
*727. Design of Public Roads. © 5e.
*739. Federal Aid to Highways, 1917. 5e.
*849. Roads. 5c.
OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS BULLETIN
*45. Data for Use in Designing Culverts and Short-span
Bridges. (1913.) 15e.
OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY CIRCULARS
49. Motor Vehicle Registrations and Revenues, 1914.
59. Automobile Registrations, Licenses, and Revenues in
the United States, 1915.
63. State Highway Mileage and Expenditures to January
1, 1916.
*72. Width of Wagon Tires Recommended for Loads of
Varying Magnitude on Earth and Gravel Roads.
oc.
73. Automobile Registrations, Licenses, and Revenues in
the United States, 1916.
74. State Highway Mileage and Expenditures for the Cal-
endar Year 1916.
161. Rules and Regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture
for Carrying out the Federal Highway Act and
Amendments Thereto.
REPRINTS FROM THE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH
5, No. 17, D-2. Effect of Controllable Variables Upon
the Penetration Test for Asphalts and
Asphalt Cements.
5, No. 20, D-4. Apparatus for Measuring the Wear of
Concrete Roads.
5, No. 24, D-6. A New Penetration Needle for Use in
Testing Bituminous Materials.
Vol. 10, No. 7, D-13. Toughness of Bituminous Aggregates.
Vol. 11, No. 10, D-15. Tests of a Large-Sized Reinforced-Con-
crete Slab Subjected to Eecentric Con-
centrated Loads.
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