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Full text of "Public Roads Vol. 7, No. 3"

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PUBLIC ROADS 


A JOURNAL OF HIGHWAY RESEARC 


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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS 












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CONTROL OF THE MissourR!I RIVER AT HIGHWAY CROSSINGS IS AN IMPORTANT PROBLEM 


WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1926 


VOL isaNQacs 


PUBLIC ROADS 


A JOURNAL OF HIGHWAY RESEARCH 
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS 


CERTIFICATE: By direction of the Secretary of Agriculture, the matter contained herein is published as administrative information and is required 


for the proper transaction of the public business 


MAY, 1926 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


Page 
Retards in Stream Control - - - - - - - - - - - - 53 
A Study of Unusual Earth Road Conditions in Northeastern Iowa - - - - - mee ale. 
The Value of the Foreman on Fresno and Wheel Scraper Work - - - - - - 6) 
Comparison of Transverse and Compressive Tests of Concrete - - - - - - 6/ 
Slabs for Delaware River Bridge Tested - - - - - - - - - - 68 





THE U. S. BUREAU 


OF PUBLIC ROADS 


Willard Building, Washington, D.C. 


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8th Floor, Saunders-Kennedy Bldg., Omaha, Nebr. 


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——— eee 


Owing to the necessarily limited edition of this publication it will be impossible to distribute it free to any persons or 
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H. S. FAIRBANK, Editor 


RETARDS IN STREAM CONTROL 


Reported by JOHN R. CHAMBERLAIN, Highway Bridge Engineer, United States Bureau of Public Roads! 


N CONNECTION with the construction of Federal- 
| aid highway bridges across the Missouri River 
and other streams the Bureau of Public Roads has 
had occasion to study the problem of stream control. 
Where a large and relatively permanent bridge is to 
be placed across a stream, which if uncontrolled is con- 
stantly shifting its channel, the problem is one of major 
importance. <A study of the erosion and silting action 
of such streams must be made in order that bridge 
sites requiring the least protection may be selected 
and that adequate protection may be included as a 
part of the construction plan. There are cases where 
the cost of holding a stream to the existing channel 
under a bridge for a period of years has greatly exceeded 
the cost of the bridge. 


CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MISSOURI RIVER 


From Sioux City in northwestern Iowa to the 
mouth of the river at St. Louis the Missouri has an 
average fall of 0.86 foot per mile. The valley is flat 
and hes between bluffs 3 to 10 miles apart, with an 
average width of about 5 miles. 

The land in the valley is mostly of a light soil, easily 
eroded, and in no place does it lie much above flood 
stage elevation. Bed rock is mostly from 50 to 100 
feet below low water and there is little variation in 
the character of soil to this depth. 

The stream carries great quantities of silt m suspen- 
sion. In August 1923, when unfiltered water from the 
river was pumped into the Omaha distributing sys- 
tem it was said to contain as high as 43 per cent of silt. 
This was, of course, considerably above the average. 

The stages of the stream are usually referred to as 
standard high and standard low elevations. These 
stages are the average high and low for the period 
under observation prior to 1888. The difference 
between standard high and standard low at Sioux 
City is 10.42 feet; at Kansas City, 14.52 feet; and at 
St. Charles, 16.14 feet. The flood discharge at Sioux 
City at standard high stage is about 200,000 cubic 
feet per second and at St. Charles, 300,000 cubic feet 
per second. The flood of 1892 discharged 650,000 
cubic feet per second and that of 1903, 750,000 cubic 
feet per second at St. Charles. 

The width of the stream between banks or standard 
high water contour varies from about 1,000 feet to 
more than a mile in places. Its depth at low water is 
insufficient to float a boat of 4 feet draught though as 
great a depth as 65 feet has been observed at flood 
stage in certain places. 

The stream, in general, meanders back and forth 
in the valley from bluff to bluff and, by reason of the 
rather extreme fall and the instability of the soil it 
effects, when not controlled, rather pronounced changes 
in location by continuous erosion of its banks. 
of this stream made to-day superimposed on maps 
made prior to 1890 show in some places, particularly 
in the Dakotas, such erratic changes that no relation 


can be seen between the location of channel now and =~ 


then. Figure 1 shows a section of the river below 





1 This report was prepared by Mr. Chamberlain a few months prior to his un- 
timely death on Dec. 15, 1925. 


95422—26 


Maps }" 


Omaha, Nebr., as it existed prior to 1890 and in 1898. 
Parts of the river as it is to-day are also shown. It is 
not unusual for erosion to change the lines of the 
stream as much as a half mile in a single year. 


PROCESSES OF EROSION 


Changes in channel occur by overflowing through a 
swale and thus developing a secondary into a principal 
channel, and by lateral erosion. The former is the 
most spectacular but the latter is the cause of the 
createst concern. Sometimes at ffood stage the over- 
flow will cut across a large horseshoe bend and will 
erode a channel of river proportions in a very short 
time and by such action shorten its length many miles. 
Such a major shortening of the stream gives rise to 
far-reaching effects. By increasing the slope it produces 
higher velocity in the stream both up and down for 
many miles. There also follows a change in the oscil- 
lation of the current between banks. The result is 
excessive lateral erosion tending to cut more and deeper 
bends. Many such major cut-offs have taken place in 










eee RIVER LOCATION PRIOR TO 1890 
~~~ RIVER LOCATION IN 1898 


eee 8 tee 6 oo, 


—- ~~. PRESENT RIVER LOCATION 


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Fic. 1.—Section of the Missouri River below Omaha, Nebr., showing pronounced 
changes in channel from about 1890 to the present time 


53 


a4 


recent years and the stream has corrected itself by 
lateral erosion so that its total length between distant 
points has remained practically unchanged. 

In general the river is a series of bends first to the 
right and then to the left. In these bends the water is 
deep along the concave bank and unless the concave 
bank coincides with the rock bluff at the edge ‘of the 
valley or is protected by artificial means the shore line 
yields to erosion. 

Even in places where the general direction of the river 
is straight for a considerable distance, lateral drosion 
may develop if conditions have been such as to form a 
bar in raatrenti a condition which will normally 
occur where the river is wide or just below a reach where 
velocity is great. The bar in the path of the current 
has the effect of crowding the stream to the sides where 























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nes 


MUL eS 
UOOODUIU0=S 
imi 


Fic, 2.—Map showing location of retards at East Omaha, Nebr. 


it attacks the banks. This was the condition just 
above Glasgow, Mo., when extreme erosion made 
expensive protection necessary to save the Chicago & 
Alton railroad in 1924. It was also probably the 
orincipal cause of rapid cutting of the north bank at 
Vaverly in 1923. Instead of the bar itself yielding to 
the attack of the current, presumably because it pre- 
sents a taper or wedge to the current, it deflects the 
stream without itself suffering dislodgment of material. 
Examples of this condition may be noted in Figure 2 
where protection work is shown along the convex shore 
at East Omaha. 

At points where bank erosion is severe, excessive 
depths are usually found and the erosion is most active 
during a receding stage, probably because the soil is 
then soaked and the ground water presents a reverse 
head tending to dislodge the particles of soil in the bank. 
As great a depth as 65 feet has been observed along such 
eroding banks at a point about 100 feet off shore. 
With this in mind the difficulties of placing any kind 
of construction to stop erosion can be appreciated. 

As a bend develops and embodies a change of direc- 
tion or central angle of near 180° there comes a time 
when the fall round the convex shore line is sufficiently 
greater than around the outside or concave shore line 
to cause the major part of the flow to follow the shorter 
passage and thus lessen the current near the concave 


PUBLIC ROADS 


Vol. 7, No. 3 








bank. This is referred to as chord action, as the cur- 
rent flows in the direction of a chord and, continuing 
in a straight line across its former channel, impinges 
directly against the outside bank. When this occurs 
it presents a difficult problem, in bank protection. 
Such a condition exists near Kast Omaha the current 
impinging against the bank at the point marked A 
in Figure 2. 
METHODS EMPLOYED IN STREAM CONTROL 


There are two general methods used in the control of 
streams. The first is to change the flow by directing 
the current away from the eroding bank in a desired 
direction. The other is to accept the current as found 
and make the bank safe against erosion. The two 
methods are sometimes combined by retarding the 
current along the eroding bank and at the same time 
partially deflecting it away. As an incidental result a 
deposit of silt is formed on the downstream side of the 
obstruction used for retarding and this in turn results 
in building out the bank to some new shore line. 

Where the river lies close to a rock bluff or edge of 
valley or where it can be made to do so the scheme of so 
deflecting the current that it will maintain such a posi- 
tion is often a desirable undertaking and if the align- 
ment of the rock bluff is straight or shghtly concave, it 
becomes a relatively easy task to train the stream by 
deflecting dikes. This practice is particularly recom- 
mended for bridge crossings of streams that must be 
kept open to navigation. 

Where the stream forms a bend in mid valley and the 
bend is relatively smooth and on a flat curve that gives 
promise of future stability if maintained the second 
method is ordinarily best adapted. 

Retarding and partially deflecting the current appears 
to be the method most commonly used by land owners 
presumably because it is the only scheme that lends 
itself to minor operations. If permeable dikes are 
introduced at intervals along the shore line, the water 
is retarded and if the velocity is slower after having 

assed the obstruction, it follows that the excess must 

e deflected out around the end and this deflection of 
current tends to change the direction of the stream 
at that point. Thus if a prism of water approaches 
the obstacle with a velocity of 4 feet per second and that 
portion which passes is reduced to 2 feet per second 
one half of the flow will of necessity be deflected. It 
also follows that if the space behind the obstruction is 
eventually filled with silt, the only remaining function 
of the obstruction is to deflect. 

Making the bank proof against erosion has the 
advantage over the deflection of current in that it pre- 
cludes the possibility of injuring other property owners 
along the stream. 

If work is installed on a piecemeal basis or in isolated 
projects instead of over long reaches, its success is 
threatened by changes that may occur up stream no 
matter what methods are used. If the work has been 
placed to meet conditions as they exist, such as the 
protection of a bend, and if the point of attack of the 
stream changes so that it will be further up stream, as 
might easily happen, by say the formation of a hook in 
the ERs shore line in a bend above, then, independ- 
ent of the type of construction, the work installed must 
fail. Or should conditions develop so that the current 
makes a chord across the bend an especially difficult 
condition appears which the work may not be pre- 
pared to withstand. 


May, 1926 


These features make it necessary to revise our ordi- 
nary concept of permanence of construction and 
emphasize the fact that work of this class should be 
thought of as a continuous operation and not first 
construction and then an annual percentage for 
maintenance. 


DEVELOPMENT OF METHODS OF RIVER CONTROL 


The major portion of river control work on the Mis- 
sour River has been installed by the War Department 
in its effort to make and maintain a navigable channel. 
Detailed description of such work is to be found in the 
files and reports of the Missouri River Commission and 
the War Department.’ 

Retarding the current with trees or saplings, one end 
of each anchored to the bottom with stones and the 
other end kept afloat by a buoy, was about the first 
plan tried. ‘The idea was borrowed from India where 
it was employed in rivers not subject to ice. It pro- 
duced the expected result but lacked durability, 
principally on account of damage by ice. This method 
was introduced on the Missouri River 45 years ago 
and various modifications were tried, such as wire 
instead of brush and tripod instead of stone anchors. 
The evolution of this method resulted in a type of 
permeable pile dike still in use and consisting of two 
or three rows of piling framed together for lateral 
bracing and supporting a curtain of vertical poles 
spaced closely to more effectually retard the current. 
Around the piling is spread a woven brush mattress 
anchored down with rock. This mattress is 75 feet 
wide and extends downstream from the dike a 
distance of 50 feet. 

The dike is placed so as to make a slight angle with 
the normal to stream flow. It is built from the bank 
out to the desired new bank. An objection to this 
form of dike is its tendency to catch drift, which, if 
accumulations are great enough, may lead to its de- 
struction. ‘To serve the purpose of creating a new 


Dd PR ti tt: 


SPH tps 





Fic. 3.—Middle dike of a series of three pile dikes protecting bridge at Leavenworth 
Kans. Note accumulation of drift 


bank it must be built above low water and hence the 
piling is subject to decay. The cost of this type of 
dike is in round figures about $25 per foot. While it 
has been used on concave banks it has not proved 
sufficiently substantial to justify its general use in 
such places, particularly where conditions are severe. 
Figure 3 illustrates a pile dike with drift accumulation 
at Leavenworth, Kans., and Figure 4 illustrates another 
installation with a brush mattress. 


4 A detailed description may be found in the transactions of the American Society 
of Civil Engineers, Vol. LIV, written by Mr. S. W. Fox, for many years principal 
assistant to Genera] Suter of the Missouri River Commission. 


PUBLIC ROADS 


ay) 





This type of protective work was successfully em- 
poured prior to 1923 on the convex bank opposite 

averly, Mo., for the purpose of forcing the river over 
against the south bluff and holding it there. At that 
time a relatively minor influence started the current 
toward the dike-protected shore. The dikes proved 
entirely inadequate to stop the very severe erosion 
and one dike was practically destroyed. Work of 
restoring the dikes to perform their original function 
iS NOW in progress. 





Fic. 4.—Mattress protection for new pile dike. 
replaced 


Old dike in center of picture being 


BANK HEADS, LONGITUDINAL DIKES, AND ABATIS 


During the early nineties experiments were made 
with bank heads, longitudinal dikes and a type known 
as the abatis. The bank heads were formed by paving 
the banks at intervals with mattresses of brush and 
stone extending well down to the possible depth of 
scour. They were built so as to form segments of 
circles in plan view. The thought was that they would 
so deflect the current that, if placed at frequent 
intervals, no erosion would occur between them. The 
radius was about 316 feet. This particular length was 
arrived at from experiments and calculations having in 
mind the effect of eddy currents on the downstream 
side. Several of these structures were built for pro- 
tection of concave bends. It was found, however, 
that they did not prevent large bays or bights forming 
between them. They soon gave evidence of failure 
and the last was destroyed in the flood of 1903. 

A case that is not unusual is that in which it is 
desired to correct a bight or pocket in a concave bank. 
Such pockets develop rapidly into large and al 
bends which are more difficult to maintain and whic 
also effect a change in the regimen of the stream 
further down. Longitudinal dikes have been employed 
to meet this condition by building the dike along 
the desired shore. The first longitudinal dike on the 
Missouri was built in 1896 just above Omaha across a 
bight or bay and along the line of the desired shore. 
It was 2,600 feet in length tied into the bank at each 
end, and had stem dikes placed at right angles con- 
necting the main dike with the shore at intervals. 
The main dike consisted of three rows of piles with a 
mattress 125 feet wide, 100 feet of which lay out in 
front of the dike on the river bed. A second mattress 
was attached to the upper 750 feet of the dike supported 
upon a wale of the ies some 3 feet above low water. 
This mattress sloped from the dike outward so that 
when the space behind the dike had silted in the 
supported mattress would lie upon the newly made 


56 


PUBLIC ROADS 


Vol. 7, No.3 














bank. This was said to be successful and later four A revetment at Council Bluffs at what is known as the 


more were constructed; one at Nebraska City, one at 
St. Joseph, one at Glasgow and one at St. Charles. 
The later form consisted of five rows of piling with 
tops 3 feet above high water. The supported mattress 
only was used and it sloped from the center row of 
piling outward and also toward the shore in long 
flat slopes. These installations were successful but 
further use of the type was not made on account of the 
cost which was $35 per foot at a time when common 
labor cost $1.10 a day. 

The abatis, a type of construction named after the 
military device of similar shape was looked upon as a 
cheap form of construction to be used in closing chutes 
and advancing shore lines where full force of the river 
would not impinge against it. It consisted of triangu- 
jar-shaped frames supporting longitudinal timbers 
which, in turn, supported poles or plank. 

Bank revetment work was first used on the Missouri 
River in 1880. Figure 5 shows the type of wire and 
brush mattress finally arrived at after many years of 
experience. It is regarded by some as the most 
permanent and reliable scheme of river control. 
Unlike the dikes it is not subject to decay since all 
wood is below water; it offers no interference to drift 
and is not affected by ice. It accepts the river where 


TOP OF BANK atid S.H.W 





DEADMAN 
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Fic. 5.—Standard form of bank revetment used on the Missouri River 


found, hence does not of itself produce effects either 
favorable or unfavorable at other points. While it is 
ordinarily thought of as permanent its length of life is 
considered good if it holds for a period of twenty or 
twenty-five years. The revetted bank above Glasgow 
has failed in stretches more than a half mile long 
under attacks which were apparently not very severe. 


Narrows has failed but under most extreme punishment. 
Various methods of constructing and using mats 


have been suggested. Perhaps the most noteworthy is 


credited to the Wabash Railroad. This type is known 
as the Cunningham mat and consists of willow poles or 
brush laid in two directions forming a mattress about 
1 foot thick which is held in position by wire fencing 
laid beneath and on top of the brush. The lower 
fence wire is tied to the upper strands at intervals of 





Fic. 6.—Cunningham mattress 100 feet wide protecting the tracks of the Wabash 
Railroad near Missouri City, Mo. 


about 3 feet in each direction and enough rock frag- 
ments are laid beneath the upper layer of fencing to 
cause the mattress to sink. This mattress has been 
installed by the Wabash Railroad near Missouri City, 
Mo., and is said to have been successful. As the 
work appears to-day, much of the mattress is sub- 
merged but a larger area is spread out along the bank as. 
safeguard against further encroachment of the stream. 
Figure 6 shows this construction. 

An objection to this type of construction is that the 
galvanized wire fencing has a limited durability, and if 
laid upon the bank as practiced by the Wabash Rail- 
road, and the river does not undermine it as intended 
for a period of one or more years the willow brush 
becomes too brittle to be of much service when once 
submerged unless by good fortune it drops quite gently 
without tendency to break up. It is said to cost at the 
present time, including a patent royalty, approximately 
$20 per running foot, 100 feet wide. 

The Missouri Pacific Railroad makes frequent use of 
a type of mattress which consists of a single layer of 
wire on which willow brush is laid and, over the brush 
and at right angles to it, heavy poles which are wired 
down to the lower layer of fencing. Upon this mat- 
tress, directly above the poles, is placed the rock ballast 
required for sinking. The cost of this type of con- 
struction is unknown but is probably not greatly 
different from that of the Cunningham mattress. 


RETARDS ANCHORED TO SHORE 


Tree retards have been used for many years by land- 
owners in their efforts to stop the caving of banks. At 
first the trees both large and small, were simply thrown 
into the stream and anchored to dead men on the 
bank. Such an arrangement does give some protec- 
tion but with water more than 20 feet deep it is not 
conceivable that the effect of floating trees so anchored, 
could be great. Another form of retard that has been 
used consists of fastening three poles approximately 


May, 1926 PUBLIC 





ROADS 57 











16 feet long at the center so that the assembled poles 
form a unit as illustrated in Figure 7. Wire is then 
strung around the unit connecting the ends of the poles 
so as to form a wire entanglement. Several of these 
units are joined together by a cable, one end of which 
is anchored to a dead man on the bank, and the whole 
series is then rolled into the stream. These series are 
spaced at desired intervals, usually very close together 
so that the mass in the stream will form a practically 
continuous entanglement. This type of retard was 
first tried on the Kansas (Kaw) River where it is re- 
ported to be quite successful. In that stream, where 
installations have been seen, the entanglements parti- 
ally buried themselves in the streambed, ae the 
protruding tops caught and accumulated floating drift. 
Their shape and anchorage made it possible for them 
to hold fast and thus effect a rather substantial mass. 
In the Missouri River the greater depth of water is 
against their catching drift and unless they do in 
fact silt in their presence apparently becomes a cause 
for more active erosion due to the eddy action around 
individual timbers where they are in contact with the 
bottom of the bank. 

In the Niobrara River in Holt County, Nebr., which 
has a wide, shallow, swift current, they proved a 
failure due to this cause. The poles in that installa- 
tion were structural steel angles and they sank almost 
straight down so that their effect could not be observed 
within a few months. 


RETARDS ANCHORED TO STREAM BED 


Trees make particularly satisfactory retards if sub- 
stantially anchored to the bottom because the current 
then forces the trees to the bottom. <A concrete pile 
driven a few rods upstream makes an effective an- 
chorage, the stability of which, however, is dependent 
upon the possibility of placing the anchorage deep 
enough below the stream bed to insure against dis- 
placement by the pull on the cable. While this 





Fic. 7.Jack-stone jetties placed in stream at point of severeattack. Those on the 
bank indicate the method of construction 


feature is not ordinarily a factor it can be easily under- 
stood that with rock-bottom less than 70 feet deep and 
a depth of stream of 50 feet or more the problem is of 
importance. If the structure stands the first flood 
attack, the probability of its loss is lessened since 
such silting as generally occurs is an added safeguard 
against future dislodgment. 

A factor to be guarded against is the formation of 
eddies on the downstream side which is likely to 
occur if the current is especially strong or where 


it does not nicely parallel the shore line. Another 
feature which effects the permanence of this type is 
the breaking of cables due to the whipping of the 
trees. Places have been noted where the trees were 
still in motion two years or more after installation. 
It 1s of course a severe test of a cable to withstand 
the bending and twisting that goes on while the trees 
are continually changing their position. 

In the construction of these retards the trees are 
piled in cordwood fashion on the bottom of the stream 


<i 
.. > 
vend)” Ts, 
Nema P : 
x ASN Yevacx A ‘ 
: A. } 





Fic. 8.—Looking downstream at tree retards from Lllinois Central bridge at East 
Omaha. Butts of trees reversed on account of eddy action 


until they show above the water surface at ordinary 
stages. They are laid with butts upstream and each 
tree is fastened by cable to the anchor cable. The con- 
crete pile anchors are placed approximately 35 feet 
apart and about 100 feet upstream from the ends of 
the trees. The trees near shore are piled well above 
the high-water stage and are anchored by cables to 
dead men back from the bank line. Units or piles of 
trees are spaced along the bank at varying distance 
depending mostly upon the length of the unit and upon 
whether the current is parallel to the shore line or 
approaches at an angle. The usual spacing may be 
taken as 500 to 1,000 feet for 150-foot units. 

The piling used for anchorage is about 15 feet in 
length and 16 inches square and is sunk under its 
own weight by the jetting process. The jet pipe 1s 
in the center of the pile aH a device for disconnect- 
ing the hose supplying the water after the pile is in 
place. The trees are put in place either from a boat 
or from land. If a boat is used, it is anchored so that 
when the trees are skidded off they will take the de- 
sired position in the retard. This is done by anchoring 
a pulley block on shore and the pull required to skid 
the trees is applied from a capstan on the boat. 

When trees are placed from land a temporary pile 
is first driven in the stream at the proposed end of the 
retard. To this pile is attached a pulley block and a 
hoisting engine placed well back on the bank furnishes 
the power for pulling the trees in groups of a dozen or 
more outward to their final position. Figure 8 shows 
a tree retard of this character near Omaha. 


RIVER PROTECTION AT EAST OMAHA 


Figure 2 shows a map of the river just above the 
city of Omaha. At this point the river crosses the 
valley from the west bluff to the east and then returns 
again to the west bluff and the land inclosed by this 
bend is called East Omaha. The area is mostly farm 
land but numerous houses and cottages are built in 


58 








the vicinity of Carter Lake. A levee has been con- 
structed to protect this area from overflow and in 
1922 the eroding bank threatened to intercept this 
levee. To prevent this a series of 19 retards, covering 
a distance of 314 miles of shore line, was installed. 
The cost per foot of retard was about $50 which 
amounted to $8.20 per foot of bank protected. 

The general direction of the stream is straight but 
there exists one quite pronounced hook in the shore line 
and for some distance below this hook the bank is, in 
fact, convex. While the map does not so show, the 
opposite side of the river is so shallow that a bar 
appears during ordinary low water stage. This bar 
appears to force the deep water along this shore and so 
maintain it even where the bank is convex. Conditions 
at this point are not considered severe and the retards 
were successful in stopping erosion and have silted in 
irregularities as illustrated in Figure 9. | 

In Figure 2 it will be noted that the Illinois Central 
Railroad lies quite close to the river near the existing 
bank which was of sand. The bank at this point was 
first revetted but the revetment failed and the con- 
struction of tree retards was started in 1922. Con- 
struction was begun at the upstream end of the series 
shown at this point. After the construction of the first 
retard and while the others were under construction 
the sand bar shown on the concave bank formed and 
chord action of the current, though not a pronounced 
case, started. The current has been thrown away from 
the bank where it was nearest to the railroad and now 
impinges with considerable force against the third, 
fourth, and fifth retards from the lower end. These 
structures have held the bank but strong eddy action 
takes place in the bights between them. Additional 
trees have been thrown in these bights and anchored 
to dead men on shore. The trees have been whipped 
about violently by the whirlpools but at the time of 
inspection appeared to be holding on very well. 





Fic. 9.—Silt deposit resulting from retard construction at East Omaha. 


Picture 
taken from tree retard a portion of which shows at lower edge of photograph 


The map shows two bar outlines, the position in 
April, 1923, being shown by a full line and the position 
in October of the same year by a dotted line. At the 
latter date a considerable volume of water was passing 
close to the shore where the bar had been a few months 
before. In 1924 this channel again practically closed 
up. The stream appears to be in a state of delicate 


PUBLIC ROADS 


Vol. 7, No. 8, May, 1926 


balance at the bend, so that at times the current takes 
the outside of the bend and at other times the short 
course, with resulting chord action. 

At Gibson, Nebr., the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 
Railroad constructed retards to protect its yards. 
These retards have become covered with rubbish 
dumped into the river and have caused the formation 
of a bar directly downstream. With the retard cov- 
ered it seems that the current would cut away the bar. 
Instead of doing this, however, the bar deflects the 
current to the opposite bank below which is being 
eroded. ‘The river at this point is quite straight and 
the deflection of the current by the bar is an excellent 
example of wedge action. 





Fic. 10.—Stone and brush dike under construction showing silting that has resulted 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON RIVER CONTROL 


An ideal plan for maintaining a river such as the 
Missouri in a permanently fixed channel would require 
holding it to a nearly uniform width at all points, 
shaping all bends with a maximum radius and develop- 
ing as much total length as possible. This would 
require the protection of the outside of bends when not 
in contact with bluffs and the installation of structures 
on the inside of bends to prevent chord action. The 
advantage of controlling long stretches of the river as 
a single project is illustrated by the work of the Mis- 
sourl River Commission on 45 miles of channel between 
Jefferson City and the mouth of the Gasconade from 
1892 to 1902. This work cost about $2,500,000 or 
$55,000 per mile and is said to have required little 
maintenance since. The total amount is only about 
twice as great as the Burlington Railroad is said to 
have spent on a single bend near Folsom, Iowa. 

Much of the work of river control has been done by 
landowners, towns, or railroads in an effort to protect 
their property. Generally this work has been limited 
to the immediate vicinity of the danger and often has 
been delayed until the danger has become acute. This 
has led to increased costs and sometimes to complete 
or partial failure. 

_ For the highway-bridge engineer planning the loca- 
tion and protection of bridges over such streams as the 
Missouri River there is available the results of many 
years of experience in such work and he must avail 
himself of it if he is to construct a permanent structure. 


A STUDY OF UNUSUAL EARTH ROAD CONDITIONS IN 
NORTHEASTERN IOWA’ 


By QUINCY C. AYRES, Associate Professor, Iowa State College 


OFT spots and mudholes which developed after 
erading in a number of earth roads in north- 
eastern [owa manifested such unusual char- 

acteristics both as to their behavior and their location 
that the writer was engaged by the State highway 
commission to conduct a field investigation of the causes 
of their occurrence. 

In nearly all cases the soft places did not exist before 
the grading of the roads. Yet after grading they began 
to develop at the crest or along the slopes of nearly 
every cut despite the fact that ample precautions had 
been taken to insure adequate drainage in the customary 
manner. 

Unlike the wet spots caused by side-hill seepage these 
failures are seasonal in character, breaking out only in 
the spring when frost begins to leave the ground and 
continuing to cause trouble until some time after the 
frost has disappeared. During this period they become 
saturated with confined water and are no more capable 
of supporting a load than deep beds of soft putty which 
they closely resemble. The occurrences are interspersed 
at frequent intervals between stretches of excellent 
roadway which bring them out in sharp contrast and 
render them all the more exasperating to the traveler. 
Certain other peculiarties have been observed, such as 
a tendency of the minor failures to shift position slightly 
from year to year, and the strange effect of rainfall 
which seems to improve their condition. The most 
plausible explanation of the latter phenomenon is to be 
sought in the temperature of spring rains, which are 
usually warm enough to melt the frost and open per- 
colation channels. 

Natural relief can not be expected until the surface 
evaporation becomes sufficiently rapid to dry out the 
top 4 or 5 inches of the road, forming a hard, tough 
crust. This crust, when once formed is generally thick 
enough to distribute loads and bridge over the soft 
material beneath until the following spring. At no 
time, however, is the crust capable of supporting heavy 
loads without a perceptible sag similar to that of a steel 
rail under the wheels of a locomotive. 

Clearly these soft spots constitute a problem of 
a special nature which requires particular treatment for 
its solution. The objects of the investigation were 
therefore (1) to discover the cause of the trouble, (2) 
to determine the most feasible remedy for existing fail- 
ures, and (3) to find the best way of handling future 
improvements so as to prevent their recurrence. 

o far the occurrences have been observed only in 
nine counties in northeastern Iowa in the vicinity of the 
Mississippi River. Clayton County seems to be most 
seriously affected, but a number of failures have been 
noted in Allamakee and Dubuque Counties, and to 
a lesser extent the counties of Winneshiek, [ayette, 
Jackson, Jones, Delaware, and Clinton have also been 
troubled. 











1 This article is substantially identical with a paper presented by the author at 
the annual meeting of the Iowa Engineering Society at Mason City, Iowa, January 
27, 1926. It is based on an investigation conducted by the writer between July and 
September, 1925, and upon preliminary examinations by Mark Morris and M. L. 
Hutton, of the lowa Highway Commission. 


In Clayton County alone, the total length of the 
failures, in improved primary roads only, is more than 
8,000 feet, and if this figure be increased in the propor- 
tion that the present improved mileage bears to the total 
mileage of primary and county roads in the county, it 
appears as probable that something like 32,000 feet of 
roadbed will eventually require treatment. 


CONCLUSIONS AS TO THE CAUSE, PREVENTION, AND REMEDY OF 
THE FAILURES 


As a result of the writer’s investigation, in the course 
of which 444 test borings from 4 to 21 feet deep were 
made in roads in Clayton County, the following con- 
clusions have been reached with respect to the cause, 
prevention, and remedy of the failures. 

The soft spots have been found to occur almost ex- 
clusively at the crest or on the side slopes of cuts made 
in grading the roads, and the investigation indicates 
that they result from the exposure by the grading 
operations of unweathered, loessal clay which, in the 
unimproved road, was overlain by stable, weathered 
material. The water contributing to the condition is, 
in the main, of purely local origin. Underground 
sources of supply, such as springs or seepage veins, 
have, as a rule, been definitely eliminated. 

For the curing of the existing failures the most 
practical remedy, in the opinion of the writer, is to 
remove the unstable material to a depth of at least 
two feet and replace it with well weathered topsoil or 
‘black dirt,’ thus providing a stable crust to bridge 
over the unstable material during the critical period, 
and duplicating the condition known to exist at places 
where no failure has occurred. Several other remedies 
have been proposed, among them the covering of the 
affected areas with rock or sand, the addition of lime 
to the soil, the use of tile drains, the planting of trees 
which it is hoped will remove the moisture from the 
soil, the burning of the unstable material, the paving 
of soft places, and others of a less practical character. 
For reasons which will later be presented the writer 
believes the formation of a crust of weathered earth 
to be the most practical procedure: but it would per- 
haps be wise to test a number of the proposals which 
seem to be feasible with a view of milbaaees the one 
which proves to be the most effective and economical. 

For roads to be graded in the future two methods are 
proposed in order to prevent the creation of the faulty 
condition: Either, a) adjust the grade line to avoid 
cutting the hills by making heavy fills with borrowed 
earth; or (2) balance the cuts and fills in the usual 
way by making allowance for the extra depth of excava- 
tion in cuts necessary to provide for replacement of 
unstable material with weathered soil. 


EXTENT AND PROCEDURE OF THE INVESTIGATION 


The area covered and the roads studied in the 
writer’s investigation are shown in the map, Figure 1. 
The evidence necessary for the determination of the 
cause and character of the failures was obtained by 
boring test holes to reveal the nature and thickness of 
the various strata. 


59 








The first test hole was dug at station 875400 of 
primary road Nos. 10-13, about 1.5 miles southwest 
of om ees, (fig. 1) from which a continuous line of 
borings was extended to a point near Elkader at sta- 
tion 165+00. Two hundred and sixty borings were 
made in this section of graded highway, each of which 
penetrated the loessal deposit and extended into the 
till or residual soils beneath. For the most part, the 
holes were dug on the left shoulder of the road about 8 
feet from the center line and the usual depth was from 
10 to 15 feet, extreme variations being from 4 to 21 


CONTINOUS LINES OF BORINGS 
m= ROUTES FOLLOWED BY RECONNAISSANCE 


OO 2345 Mi: 
Se 


MONONA 


oi eeicm is \. 5 ke 


Bc. 
56 


BOO oes ae 


CAGARNAVILLO 
\ 


eA ee 


corre 


Fic. 1.—Map indicating continuous lines of borings and reconnaissance routes 





feet. The diameter of all the holes was 6 inches and 
the spacing in all cuts was from 50 to 100 feet or closer. 
A number of holes were also dug in the stable portions 
of the road, and a few were located in adjoining fields. 
At the time of making each boring depth measurements 
were taken and every change in color, texture or con- 
sistency of the soil was recorded. 

The station number of each hole was accurately de- 
termined from the permanent reference hubs and a 
continuous line of levels was run to establish the eleva- 
tion of the road surface at the holes. The elevation 
of the top of both banks opposite each hole was also 
obtained so that original surface elevations could be 
computed. 

In this way every cut in the McGregor-Elkader road 
was thoroughly investigated and an attempt was made 
to account for those that had not caused trouble as 
well as for those that had. The failures of 1925 which, 
on this section of highway, aggregate 3,933 feet in 
length, were identified by laths driven in each bank 
opposite their extremities, and wherever such a stake 


PUBLIC ROADS 


Vol. 7, No. 3 











was found its station number was recorded and used to 
locate the borings. A few unstaked failures were 
located frcm the records of County Engineer Hahn. 

The next stage of the investigation consisted in 
boring all the proposed cuts in primary road Nos. 19-20 
from Postville to Monona, at present unimproved, 
though the plans for such improvement are complete. 
One hundred and forty six holes were sunk in the 
manner already described except that in this road 
many of the borings were made along the center line 
in relocations. When the notes of these borings have 
been plotted, it should be possible to predict with a 
fair degree of accuracy the location of the failures that 
may develop after construction. 

For the purpose of securing corroborative evidence, 
41 holes were bored, covering the eight failures between 
the intersection of primary roads 10-13 and 19-20 and 
Monona. These Haitiees which have an aggregate 
length of 1,939 feet, were obtained from County 
Engineer Hahn. 

In order to make certain that the soil conditions 
revealed by the continuous lines of boring were truly 
typical, the writer conducted brief reconnaissance 
examinations of the following roads: 

Primary No. 51—Postville to Waukon. 

Primary No. 19—Postville to West Union. 

Primary No. 56—West Union to Elkader. 

Primary Nos. 10-13—Elkader to Strawberry Point. 

Primary No. 56—Elkader to Garnavillo. 

Primary No. 20—Intersection of primary Nos. 10-13 
to Guttenberg. 

cuts on these roads, including a number of — 
treated and untreated failures, were closely inspected 
and sufficient borings were made to identify the various 
strata as belonging to the classification previously 
established from the continuous lines of borings, as 
shown in Figure 1. Nothing was found to controvert 
any of the conclusions previously indicated. 


CAUSE OF FAILURE 


Early in the progress of the investigation it became 
evident that the difference in elevation between the 
road grade and the original ground surface was the 
key to the situation and not the depth of cut below 
the old road, unless the two happened to coincide. 
Proceeding on this premise, the cause is to be sought in 
the geological and soil characteristics of the area 
affected. 

Without going into an extended discussion of geologic 
history, this region may be said to he in a position 
untouched by the last glacial invasion. Consequently 
it is blanketed by a layer of fine-grained, loessal clay 
(presumably of wind-blown origin) which covers the 
tough sandy clays laid down in a previous glacial 
epoch or residual soils composed of weathered rocks. 
(See fig. 2.) These underlying clays though stiff and 
summy are mixed with sand and angular rock fragments 
which render them permeable and firm. In color they 
range from a deep, ox-blood red to pale tan and wher- 
ever exposed, provide an excellent roadbed. 

The overlying blanket of loessal clay on the other 
hand, never contains any sand or rock fragments and, 
in general, presents opposite characteristics. Its usual 
thickness is from 9 to 15 feet and, though somewhat 
thicker on hills, as a rule it conforms closely to the 
residual subsurface. In its undisturbed state, three 
degrees of weathering are clearly marked, as illustrated 
in Figure 2. 


First stage of weathering.—Starting at the bottom 
(on the residual subsurface) the first stage is noted as 
a pure, bright, gray clay interspersed but not mixed 
with thin laminated streaks of dark brown and yellow 
oxides and carbonates of iron (limonite striations). 
This clay, though fine grained, is rather stiff and re- 
quires considerable pressure to work in the hands. 
Its consistency in place is generally that of stiff putty, 
but, when dry it is powdery and fluffy, like flour. In 
some instances, where it overlies colored sandstone, a 
thin layer at the bottom of the stratum is found to be 
discolored to chocolate-brown, mouse-gray or ink-blue. 

Second stage of weathering.—In the second stage, 
immediately above the first, a dull, drab gray occurs 
mixed with nodules of brown and yellow lhmonite, 
which has been partially oxidized. The mixing pro- 
cess 1s not so pronounced near the bottom of the layer 
but it gradually increases toward the top, until, in the 
uppermost portion, the mixture is so well mottled that 
its component parts are difficult to detect. In its 
natural condition, the clay in this stage is generally 
quite wet, ranging in consistency from very soft to 
soft putty, and occasionally stiff putty. When worked 
in the hands it is very soft, yielding, sticky and plastic. 

Third stage of weathering.—The third and last stage 
represents a stratum of the same mixture in an ad- 
vanced state of oxidation lying near the ground sur- 
face. It is no longer possible to discern particles of 
limonite nor is any of the gray clay visible. The 
product of complete weathering 1s a fine-grained clay 
of even texture and uniform color, ranging from a 
hght buff-brown at the bottom of the stratum to a 
darker brown cast near the top. In fields, the top 
18 inches or more is permeated with humus and de- 
cayed vegetation, which is responsible for the dark 
color and its familiar name “black dirt.” 


PIERCING OF WEATHER LINE CAUSES SOFT SPOTS 


Weather line of the third stage.—Before considering 
consistency, it is well to divide this upper stratum into 
two parts: (1) Stable; and (2) unstable. One can 
never be certain just exactly where this line should 
be drawn, even while making borings, but perhaps 
three-fourths the stratum thickness below the surface 
would not be far from right in a majority of cases. 
Above this line oxidation 1s complete, the soil 1s thor- 
_ oughly weathered, dark in color, crisp, firm, friable and 
crumbly, and is normally moist or quite dry. Below 
it, the color is lighter brown, the texture gummy and 
unyielding, and the consistency is generally that of 
stiff putty. Obviously, this line represents a critical 
elevation, since cuts that either pierce it or approach 
it too closely are almost certain to cause trouble. 
Hereafter, it will be designated and referred to as the 
“weather line.’ Above it complete weathering has 
occurred and conditions are stable. Below, and_be- 
tween it and the residual clay line, unstable conditions 
are found since the soil is in various transitional 
stages of oxidation, the latter process probably progress- 
ing in increasing degree from bottom to top. . 

The chemical composition of the clay in the third 
stage of weathering, above and below the weather line, 
is shown in Table 1. Practically no difference can be 
detected, chemically, between the stable and unstable 
conditions, but the colloidal content of the unweathered 
portion is doubtless very high. . 

The entire depth of the loessal deposit as well as the 
thickness of layers in any one of the three stages of 


PUBLIC ROADS 


ome pe ee 


61 





weathering can naturally be expected to vary con- 
siderably in different localities. However, 12 feet can 
be said to be the most common depth with the inter- 
mediate layers spaced proportionately. On this basis, 
a typical section (fig. 2) may be described as follows: 
Total thickness of deposit, 12 feet; thickness of first 
stage, 4 feet; thickness of second stage, 4 feet; thick- 
ness of third stage, 4 feet. The weather line in this 
case would be three-fourths the thickness of the third 
stage, or 3 feet below the ground surface. 


ORIGINAL SURFACE 














er hse OLS TAMER. - sale 


1 SEO LIGHT BROWN CLAY -UNIFORM: OSA 
pesca tack 





Cheat sie : ey : 
. A ae. 
— See ane . ae 

















SECOND STAGE 
MOTTLED GRAY BROWN- YELLOW 





UNSTABLE 





FIRST STAGE 
PURE GRAY AND LIMONIFE STRIATIONS 


UNSTABLE 


4.90 GLACIAL TILL OR RESIDUAL - 
CG e SANDY CLAY AND ROCKY FRAGMENTS ° 
From 
STABEE 


Fic. 2.—Typical diagram of three degrees of weathering of the loessal clays of 
Northeastern Iowa 


TABLE 1.—Chemical compositions of soil in third stage of weathering 








' Chemical composi- | Chemical com posi- 
tionofstablema-| tion of unstable 
terial above material below 
weather line | weather line 























Substance ~, Sania 

Air-dry , Dry ! Air-dry | Dry 

basis basis basis basis 
| Percent . Per cont | Per cent | Per cent 
pir | ETE CSS OE a el se eS ene Saree ee Wk WO) : 76. 41 | 71. 80 16. 28 
Tron and aluminum oxides (Fe203, AleO3) 7 17. 16 18. 44 | 16. 41 17. 44 
Calon Ose a ©) . cms oe oeeuee - 1.31 a) | 1. 44 1. 53 
Migenesium oxide (Mg O)__--_---_..----- 1. 30 1. 40 | 1.32 1. 40 
Alkalies and undetermined -.__.----_---- : 2. 18 2,34 . 3. 15 3.38 
Cr i a 2 P49 j------+---| | — 
i i ee eee c 100. 00 100. 00 | 100. 00 100. 00 





All the foregoing discussion has been confined to 
soils in their original or natural state. The situation 
existing in failures on graded roads can not be so 
simply defined. Here, the normal oe of oxida- 
tion have been interfered with and the three degrees 
of weathering are not so clearly apparent. If the cut is 
deep enough to remove the third stage and sufficient 
time has elapsed to allow partial oxidation of the first 
stage, only soils in the second stage of weathering may 
be present. In time, these soils would no doubt 
gradually become further oxidized and finally pass 
into a stable condition, but it would be futile to hazard 
a guess as to the number of years required. — The 
churning and kneading action of traffic also complicates 
the classification by producing an unnatural mixture 
at the road surface. , 


PUBLIC ROADS 


Vol. 7, No. 3 


—$—_s 


























As long as surplus water is kept away from the upper 
2 feet of this material it forms a firm roadbed with a 
tough, rubbery crust. Once it becomes saturated, 
however, (and its affinity for capillary moisture is 
very great) the water clings tenaciously and whatever 
structure it may have possessed is immediately broken 
up. In this condition it is extremely soft, sticky and 
plastic, and shifts about readily under traffic. If 
enough water is present it can be made to flow like 
thick molasses. 

The only time when such a condition occurs naturally 
is in the spring of the year when frost is going out of 
the ground and large quantities of water are drawn 
from the wet layers beneath by capillary action. At 
this time, downward movement of excess water is shut 
off by frost and escape into side ditches is prevented 
by frosty, plastic shoulders. If tile drains are present, 
the chances are they lie in a bed of the same material 
which has flowed over and effectually sealed the joints. 
About the only way in which surplus water can be re- 
moved, then, is by evaporation which, at this season, 
is very slow. Relief can not come until all frost is gone 
and the opportunity for vertical and lateral percola- 
tion is presented. 

SOURCE OF WATER 


Nothing was more clearly demonstrated in the in- 
vestigation than that water 1s not delivered under pres- 
sure from underground sources, either as springs or 
seepage veins. The water is purely of local origin and 
is held permanently at considerable depths by the 
— capillary properties of the soil in question. 

n only a few instances was flowing water encountered 
and these were in localities remote from failures and 
at depths that could cause no trouble. 

In most of the test holes, a layer similar to soft 
putty was struck at a depth of 6 to 8 feet and this 
extended, as a rule, to 12 feet. Below this point the 
material seemed to become drier. The residual sandy 
clays were, for the most part, relatively dry. This 
leads to the belief that there exists permanently, some- 
where between the ground surface and the residual sub- 
surface, a layer of saturated material which dries out 
slowly by percolation from below and evaporation from 
above. Local rains, of course, continually replenish 
the moisture removed in this way. The only effect of 
a long, hot dry summer would be to reduce the thick- 
ness of the saturated layer. 


In a few places, the roots of large trees had extracted 
nearly all ie surplus water and wherever this had oc- 
curred, borings showed the soil to be quite dry or merely 
damp all the way down. Other places were noted, 
however, where the effect of trees was not so pro- 
nounced. Strange as it may seem, the soil, in midsum- 
mer is noticeably drier in the failures than in any other 

art of the road. In all probability this is due to the 
act that the loessal blanket is usually of minimum 
thickness in failures, causing a corresponding thinness 
in the saturated layer, which in turn produces rela- 
tively dry soil conditions because less water is held in 
storage. 

A good idea of the changes in moisture content that 
occur between April and July may be had from Table 
2, which gives comparative data on material taken 
from the same points and same depths during the 
months named. 


MANNER OF OCCURRENCE 


From the foregoing discussion it is plain that when- 
ever cuts of more than 2 to 4 feet below the ground sur- 
face are made, the danger zone is generally entered and 
a failure is likely to occur at the crest of the puncture. 
(Case I, fig. 3.) If the cut is deep enough entirely to 
remove the loessal deposit and intersect the residual 
subsurface, failures commonly take place on either one 
or both sides of the crest. (Case If. fig. 3.) In this 
connection, the crest of the puncture may or may not 
coincide with the high point of the road grade line. 


Where the road lies in a steep side-hill cut, the stable . 


material from the high side has generally been deposited 
in the outer half of the roadbed and soft spots normally 
develop in the inner half only. (Case III, fig. 3.) 
Occasionally a freak formation is encountered where 
deep cuts, penetrating the residual subsurface, do 
not ~ in a failure on either side. (Case IV, 
We 8, 

In other localities the improved roadbed was ob- 
served to be 3 feet or more below the ground surface 
with no failure in evidence. Such a case could usually 
be explained by the fact that a fill or only a very light 
cut had been made on the old roadbed which had pre- 
viously been eroded well below the original surface. 
The weather line, under these circumstances, had had 
sufficient time to penetrate below the grade of the old 
road. (Case V, fig. 3.) 


TABLE 2.—Comparative moisture properties of material taken from the same points and depths within and beyond areas of failure on 
the Elkader-McGregor Road in Apiil and July 



























































| Mexia Moisture content 
Depth of | Depth Capil- € 
Location of test hole epth o July Description Consistency lary 
strata sample capac- 
! ity April July April, July, 
| tests tests | 1925 1925 
Feet Feet ; Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent 
See 1 With- 0.5to 4.8. 2.8 Mottled gray and brown, well mixed (second stage)_| Soft putty____- { ee 221 ph \ 25.9 26. 4 
4.8to 9.1. 4.8) Pure gray with limonite (first stage)...........--.---|-..-- guts: 3.7) 8 Deal} 25.4 25.0 
9.1 to 13.4 9.8 | Yellow-brown sandy clay (residual)..............__-- Stiff put 28. 0 18.0 { as 1 18. 5 21.5 
| | 2. 2 | 
13. 4 to 16 13.8 ' Same—slight changes in texture__.__..________._____ Forms ball... 2G6n2 2087 ie, 2 } 18.3 18. 2 
20.8 | 
| 25. 1 
Station 553+00. Be- 4.9 to 6.1 5.8 . Light brown clay (third stage below weather line)-_..| Soft putty.._.. 38. 2 31.6 26. 7 29.3 30. 2 
yond failure. 25. 0 
6.1to 8.9 7.5 ' Mottled gray and brown (second stage) ._._._.__..___|____. Oe. 2 34.5 | 3202 { a \ 26; 2 25. 7 
8.9to 17.9 10.1 ° Pure gray with limonite striations (first stage) .....__|_._.- Owes an 33. 8 22.8 { at \ 24. 2 24.3 
17.9to18 ..._.__. Sandy blue clay (residual)........................... | Stiff putty. __.|......_._- — | — - 170i eats 








May, 1926 PUBLIC ROADS 63 











PROPOSED TREATMENT 





For improved roads.—As remedies for existing fail- 
ures, many ideas have been advanced and these will be 
touched upon later, but it seems to the writer that the 
simplest, cheapest, and most practical method would be 





aoe N2 i du nasi within the failures conditions that have 

een found to exist outside, beyond either extremity. 

aia adit won i. siemens This means that the unstable no Scr now present 

must be entirely removed to a depth of at least 2 feet 

and well-weathered topsoil or “black dirt”? used to 

tT NTN, replace it. Every facility should be provided to allow 

eo. a the water from melting frost to escape to the side 
7 lweater une ditches without puddling at the surface. 

a | >. For this purpose, the writer believes the excavation 

a 7 - \ = should extend entirely across the roadbed, should be 

x FAILURE FAILURE Sx >> given a slight crown, and should be paved with a thin 

Rs GRADE \ ee 7 .| 2 layer of tough sod or grass roots (no long grass or weeds) 

ae Dy before backfilling with topsoil. The sod would then 

"a PESlOUAL FRAGMENTS Vee act as an insulating layer separating the stable and un- 

CASE L stable material and would also provide a permeable mat 

HEAVY CUT WITH FAILURES ON EACH SIDE OF CREST through which the water that rises from below could 

(¢ PROFILE) seep into the side ditches and flow away. Any organic 


matter like sod will naturally rot in time, but if air is 
excluded and the sod is kept moist, it is believed that 
its decomposition will proceed very slowly. Even after 
it has rotted out, many minute root cavities willl re- 
main and provide a permeable passageway for seepage. 
Such use of sod can be defended on the ground that it 
is always removed from the base of earth dikes and 
dams for the reason that it does permit easy percolation 
of water. 

The side ditches should of course be deep enough 
and have sufficient fall to assure the removal of seepage 
water as rapidly as it arrives. Any rain that falls 
during the critical period will be disposed of in the 
same way as In other parts of the road. Care should 
be taken to see that the topsoil extends well beyond 
the limits of the failure and that it feathers out into 
the stable portions of the road. One other point that 
commends itself in this regard is the fact that all 
materials necessary for the treatment are available at 
the site where needed. The essential features of the 
treatment by this method are shown graphically in 
Figure 4. 

Two of the worst failures in the entire section were 
treated in this manner during the fall of 1925, and an 
inspection made during ei showed the treated sec- 

tions to be in good condition, although soft spots have 
ete developed as usual in other cuts and in the locations 
FREAK FORMATION IN HEAVY CUT WITH NO FAILURES : 
(4 PROFILE) predicted. | 

For unimproved roads.—For roads not yet improved 
in this section, two methods of procedure suggest 
themselves. Either (1) the grade line can be adjusted 
to avoid cutting the hills by making heavy fills with 
borrowed earth, or (2) cuts and fills can be balanced 
in the usual way by making allowance for the extra 
depths of excavation in cuts necessary to provide for 
replacement with weathered material. The writer 
is inclined to favor the second method since construc- 
tion can be carried on in the customary way and the 





SIDE-HILL CUT WITH FAILURE AT INNER SIDE 
(CROSS SECTION) 








GAGE V treatment can be provided at small additional cost; 
INFLUENCE OF OLD ROAD IN PREVENTING NORMAL FAILURES but some situations no doubt exist where the first 
(¢ PROFILE) method would be preferable. In the Jong run, of 


. _ course, topographical conditions would determine 
Fia. 3.—Cla i tk ffect upon the location , = : : : 
So ae which is the most feasible in any given case. The 


64 


PUBLIC ROADS 


Vol. 7, No. 3, May, 1926 











first method, however, does possess a real advantage 
in that it is not dependent on experimental support to 
Insure its success. 

OTHER PROPOSALS 


Rock treatment.—Figure 5 illustrates the method of 
rock treatment, suggested by Mr. Hutton, that has 
been tried with considerable success in a number of 
failures. The chief objection to its use lies in the 
expense of application and the fear of some engineers 
that it will prove to be temporary, since water has 


24 OR 26 






2" SOD WEEP MAT— NO LONG GRASS OR WEEDS 


Fic. 4.—The essential features of the top soil or black dirt treatment. Any 
existing tile lines should be excavated and relaid in black dirt 
been observed oozing up between the rocks. This or 


any other method would doubtless be more effective 
and traffic conditions would be greatly improved if the 
unstable shoulders were entirely removed. 

Sand treatment.—The method of replacing the un- 
stable material in failures with sand undoubtedly 
possesses considerable merit. Sand is heavier than 
“black dirt”? and may make a firmer roadbed without 
hindering the passage of water. Its grains lack cohe- 
sion, however, and it would probably work its -way 
down into the saturated clay and disappear (as gravel 
does at present) unless separated from the clay by a 
layer of boards or other impenetrable material. In 
exceptional places, where the grade line lies only a 
foot or so above the residual subsurface, sand dumped 
into the failure would effect a cure. 

Lime.—The addition of large quantities of lime, 
well mixed with the clay, would be of considerable 
benefit in breaking up its dense and gummy structure. 
Experiments may show that this process progresses 
to a sufficient extent to cause relief. It is common 
practice among farmers to use lime for this purpose. 

Use of tile-—There is little doubt that the benefits 
from tile drains as ordinarily laid in this material do 
not justify their cost. [ven if their joints are not 
sealed by the plastic clay, the tile he at such a depth 
as to be below the thaw line for several weeks and 
hence are rendered inoperative at the most critical 
tre. After the frost has disappeared, however, they 
certainly would have some effect (with open joints) 
in reducing the amount of water present at the time 
of freezing in the fall. 

The writer can not help but believe that a line of tile 
under either one or both shoulders, laid in a thick bed 
of “black dirt,” with spurs angling into the failures 
at frequent intervals, might effect a cure. If used in 
conjunction with other methods, such tile would surely 
serve to produce less aggravated conditions in the 
spring. 

Trees.—All trees, and especially some varieties such 
as willows, have a well-known capacity to absorb 
large quantities of water during the growing season. 
Wherever a number of trees were found during the 
investigation close to the right of way, their effect on 
the moisture content of the roadbed was noticeable, 
and some stretches of good road can be cited that 





would probably have been failures without the protect- 
ing presence of trees. Where large trees exist at the 
site of cuts, their presence constitutes a fortunate coin- 
cidence. To plant them, however, and then await 
their slow development, can hardly be seriously con- 
sidered as a measure of practical relief. 

Burning.—The writer has been informed on good 
authority that some railroad companies, owning mile- 
age in similar soil conditions, make a practice of burn- 
ing the clay to hasten oxidation and destroy its un- 
stable properties. Briefly, the process is said to con- 
sist in stripping off the top layer, applying a hot flame 
to the subgrade and then replacing the surface soil 
in its original position. This ane of treatment would 
necessitate a flare plant investment, would require 
skilled labor to operate it, and would be expensive to 
maintain. It might be tried in case the less expensive 
and more practicable methods failed to give relief. 

Short sections of pavement.—It is said to be customary 
in Wisconsin to cure isolated soft spots (presumably 
of the same nature as those in northeastern Iowa) by 
constructing short sections of concrete pavement to dis- 
tribute traffic loads over wider areas and thus prevent 
failure. This practice has many features to commend 
it if the necessary expense can be met. Some doubt 
would seem to exist, however, as to whether a perma- 
nent pavement could be easily maintained with such 
ungiabia material directly beneath. 

Temporary expedients.—In order to avoid closing the 
roads altogether for several weeks in the spa it 1s 
common practice to bridge over the failures with 
heavy planks, laid directly on the yielding surface. . 
The planks are later removed and piled at some con- 
venient point for use the following spring. This prac- 
tice requires no comment other than that it can not 
be condoned on any but emergency grounds. 


ae ee 2! OR 26° 


GRAVEL SURFACE 5‘) LOOSE ROCK DRAIN 
2 WIDE 


25'C.TOC 


LOOSE ROCK DRAIN 


PROFILE GRADE , 
2' WIDE . 


ROCK 





ass 


TYPE A (ALONG EXISTING TILE ORAINS) 


24 OR 26' | 
GRAVEL SURFACE 5” PROFILE GRADE 
‘Yi Tae —— 
(Eee. | ee 


LOOSE ROCK ORAIN 
2' WIDE 
25 C.TOC. 


LOOSE ROCK DRAIN 7 
2’ WIDE 6 i 


2s'ctoc.. 1 





TYPE 8 {WHERE NO TILE LINES EXIST) 


Fic. 5.—Rock and gravel surface treatments shown on the plans of the Iowa State 
Highway Commission 


Another temporary expedient, has been to corduroy 
the wet spots with logs and long timbers placed trans- 
versely across the road. This primitive method is of 
historical interest since it has been used from time im- 
memorial to bridge any and all kinds of mud holes, 
and, where logs can be kept permanently wet, it is 
entitled to some consideration. At least 1t can boast 
the merit of cheapness. 


(Continued on page 66) 


THE VALUE OF THE FOREMAN ON FRESNO AND 
WHEEL SCRAPER WORK 


Reported by ANDREW P. ANDERSON, Highway Engineer, Bureau of Public Roads 


Hii value of the foreman in road grading work 
with fresnoes and wheel scrapers is well illus- 
trated by data recently obtained on two jobs 

studied by the division of control of the Bureau of 
Public Roads. 

The first study was a fresno job on which, at first, 
there was practically no effective supervision, although 
the work was nominally in charge of a very inefficient 
foreman. Later this same outfit, while operating on 
the same job and under practically identical conditions, 
was placed under the supervision of a foreman who 
effectively devoted his entire time to the work. The 
difference in the rate of operation at once became 
apparent and is clearly shown by the graphs in Figure 1. 

efore the new foreman took hold of the job, the 

time taken for the performance of the several opera- 
tions involved: in a round trip, other than the direct 
haul and return amounted to 1.84 minutes, or 110 
seconds, and the teams were driven at an average rate 
of only 179 feet per minute—a trifle more than 2 
miles per hour—which is abnormally slow. When the 
foreman took charge, however, the time constant went 
down to 1.12 minutes or 67.2 seconds, while the aver- 
age speed of the teams increased to 217 feet per minute 
or almost 214 miles per hour. The time of performing 
the operations of loading, turning, and dumping, in- 
cluding all waits was, therefore, reduced from 1.84 
minutes to 1.12 minutes, or 39 per cent, and the aver- 
age operating speed of the teams was increased from 
179 feet per minute to 217 feet, or 21 per cent. 

The effect on the size of the average load carried to 
the dump was also very marked. Before the new fore- 
man arrived the average load carried to the dump was 
0.23 cubic yard. After his arrival the average load 
increased to 0.28 cubic yard, or over 21 per cent. For 
a haul of 100 feet the output of the outfit was thus in- 
creased about 83 per cent, while for a 400-foot haul, the 
corresponding increase in output amounted to about 
64 percent. The comparative effect of the foreman on 
the various operations is shown in more detail in Table 
1, which represents the average results of two weeks of 
operation of the outfit under practically identical con- 
ditions except as to supervision. 


TaBLE 1.—Stop-watch study of the fresno job before and after 
arrival of foreman 
































Average time 
required 
Operation oes Difference 

With | Without 

foreman | foreman | 
Seconds | Seconds | Seconds , Per cent 
bending _.........._..._....___-_---- zeae 14. 4 19.3 4.9 | 125 
iiteeyae and turning...............-.--- lie 20. 6 Sea 116 
0 hhh bens We lane 18.8 4.8 1 26 
Memeo Wieck ......___....--.._....-.----- 3.4 ies 1.9 1 36 
Wyerummror idle. _.._..........-.-.---- ee 18. 0 46. 0 28. 0 161 
iGteliand amengiges....__._..-..-..- 67. 1 110. 0 42.9 1 39 
Average load (cubic yards) -_...-.-.------ . 28 . 23 .05 72) 
Average speed of teams (feet per minute) - Zig 179 38 2 2) 





1 Decrease. 2 Increase. 


Most grading work and fresno and wheeler work in 
particular, consists of the consecutive performance over 
and over again of comparatively few and relatively 
simple operations. Consequently even very slight 
increases in the average time taken to perform each or 
any of these repetitive operations accumulate during 
the course of the day to rather surprising totals, which 
are clearly reflected in the reduced output. It 1s, 
therefore, not necessary for a grading outfit to cease 


$00 


300 


200 


LENGTH OF HAUL- FEET 





TIME PER ROUND TRIP-MINUTES 
Fic. 1.—Effect of supervision on rate of operation of the fresno outfit 


operation for even the briefest periods in order to de- 
crease its output by as much as 25 per cent, especially 
on short hauls. <All that is necessary is an almost 
unconscious and scarcely apparent slowing down of the 
average rate of performance sufficient to add a few 
seconds to the time required for each of the several 
operations. The inexperienced observer would prob- 
ably be unable to notice any loafing and even the work- 
men may honestly believe that they are just as busy and 
working just as hard in one case as the other. Only a 
stop-watch analysis or a check of the yardage moved 
will fully demonstrate the difference between operation 
directed with forethought and precision and the merely 
aimless hurry of undirected operation. 

From Table 1 it will be seen that in this case the 
slowing down was of a rather aggravated form, and 
extended to every one of the operations, including even 
the speed of the teams and the size of the loads. Gener- 
ally, especially during short periods of nonsupervision, 
the speed of the teams and the size of the load carried 
to the dump will be affected but little. 


WHAT THE WHEELER STUDY SHOWED 


The wheeler outfit presented a somewhat different 
set of conditions. The stock was good, the equipment 
first class, and the men well trained. Ordinarily the 
supervision was excellent and the outfit was operating 
at a rate well above the average. For some reason, 
however, it became necessary for the foreman to be 
absent fora period. The effect on the rate of operation 
was immediate and striking, as shown by Figure 2. 


65 


66 


PUBLIC ROADS 


Yol. 7, No. 3, May, 1926 




















Under the supervision of the foreman the time con- 
stant for loading, turning, and dumping and all neces- 
sary waits was only 1.81 minutes. uring his absence 
this time increased at once to 2.65 minutes, an increase 
of 46 percent. But the average speed of the teams did 
not change appreciably. This was probably due, in 
part, to the fact that in wheeler work the pull is very 
light during the main hauling operation where the grade 
is good, as in this case, and in part to the fact that 
teams when in good condition niin overworked tend 


$00 








LENGTH OF HAUL- FEET 

















TIME PER ROUND TRIP-MINUTES 
Fic. 2.—Effect of supervision on rate of operation of the wheel scraper outfit 


to maimtain a fairly even pace. Furthermore, the 
morale of the outfit was good, so there was na con- 
scious intent to slow up the pace or decrease production. 
This is further reflected in the fact that no decrease 
was noticeable in the average size of the load carried to 
the dump as determined from a count of their number 
and a careful cross-sectioning of the cut. 

In this case it was apparent that the slowing up was 
entirely unconscious; and it was manifested only in the 
slightly greater time required for each of the repetitive 
operations of loading, turning, dumping, etc., which, 
especially on short hauls, consume such a surprisingly 
large part of the working day. On a 100-foot haul the 
output of the outfit was decreased 34 per cent, but on a 
500-foot haul, since the speed of the teams remained 
constant, the decrease in output, caused by the slowing 
up of the loading and dumping operations, was only 
about 16 per cent. 

The influence of the foreman may be seen more 
clearly, perhaps, by an examination of the output per 
fresno and per wheeler as found in these studies. Thus, 
when no foreman was present on the job, the output 
per fresno on a 100-foot haul was 20 trips per hour, 
carrying a total of 4.6 cubic yards of material to the 
dump. Assoon as the new forman had taken charge of 
the work this changed to 30 trips per hour carrying 8.4 
cubic yards. In other words, the simple change from a 
careless foreman, frequently absent, to an alert man, 
constantly on the job, served to increase the amount of 
material each fresno placed in the dump when operating 
on a 100-foot haul by 3.8 cubic yards per hour. If 
figured at only 20 cents a cubic yard the value of the 
increased output per 10-day hour for each fresno was 
puecinaa sufficient to pay the entire wages of the 

oreman. When the haul was 400 feet long the dif- 
ference in the hourly output of each fresno amounted 
to 1.36 cubic yards or 13.6 cubic yards per 10-hour 


day per fresno. If the value to the contractor of 
material placed in the dump, even on this longer haul, 
were no greater than on the short haul, the increased 
output from three fresnoes would be more than sufficient 
to pay the foreman’s wages. And since five fresnoes 
were usually on the job it can readily be seen that a 
handsome profit still remained for the contractor by 
virtue of the increased output the foreman brought to 
the job. | 

On the wheeler job the mere temporary absence of 
the foreman caused the output per wheeler to shrink 
from 8 to 6 cubic yards per hour on a 100-foot haul and 
from 3.7 cubic yards to 3.2 cubic yards per wheeler 
per hour on the 500-foot hauls. The foreman’s 
absence, therefore cost the contractor 2 cubic yards per 
hour for each wheeler operating on the 100-foot haul 
and one-half cubic yard per hour for each wheeler on the 
500-foot haul. Since there were usually five wheelers 
on the job operating on the basis of a 10-hour day it is 
clear that the contractor took a decided loss over and 
above the wages of the foreman during every hour he 
was absent from the job. 

If these two studies are representative of average 
conditions there would seem to be no room for doubt 
that, on the ordinary grading job, a good foreman more 
than pays his own wages in the form of increased output 
and is therefore a necessary and vital part of the 
outfit. 














(Continued from page 64) 


Freak remedies.—Among the freak remedies that - 
have been proposed may be listed, (1) chemical treat- 
ment, by which the weathering process will be com- 
pleted overnight through the injection of some cheap 
chemical compound, and (2) the introduction of saw- 
dust, hay, manure, or other rubbish into the failures 
with the hope that some magic effect will be produced 
that can not be clearly explained. It seems hardly 
necessary to add that, if any such remedies should 
meet with success, the good fortune will be purely 
accidental. 

Since no theory is worth much until it has been 
tested by actual experience, the writer is in hearty 
epee with the plan to try a number of remedies 
that seem most feasible, with the view of adopting 
the oae that proves best for general recommendation 
and use. He believes, however, that each experi- 
mental treatment should be carefully installed, under 
close supervision, so as to insure a fair trial to all. 


MARYLAND TO STUDY CONCRETE CURING 


Field tests to determine the relative merits of the 
conventional method of curing concrete with an earth 
covering as compared to concrete containing an admix- 
ture of calcium chloride with sodium silicate squeegeed 
on the surface are to be conducted by the aryland 
State Roads Commission. The Bureau of Public 
Roads plans to have an observer present during the 
tests. Three sections of road each about 4,000 feet in 
length are to be built on the Maryland road system 
about 20 miles from Washington. 

A unique feature of the tests is that double cylin- 
drical molds are to be placed on the subgrade and filled 
and cured as a part of the pavement. Compression 
tests on these specimens will be made at ages of 1, 3, 7, 
14, and 21 days. 


COMPARISON OF TRANSVERSE AND COMPRESSIVE 
msol> OF CONCREME 


By H. F. CLEMMER, Formerly Engineer of Materials, Illinois Department of Public Works 


avement to be able to predict within reasonable 

imits the actual strength of the completed slab. 
As Portland cement concrete has been used in the past 
principally where it has been subjected to compressive 
stresses, the compressive test has come to be general 
practice, and it has been carried over into the field 
of concrete pavement investigations, although it 1s 
a recognized fact that rigid type pavements are sub- 
jected to transverse stresses. This fact, together with 
the wide variation in the results of compressive tests 
on cores taken from pavements, has prompted general 
interest in the question as to whether the compressive 
test may be taken as a direct measure of the transverse 
strength of the payment. 


7 IS of primary importance in designing a concrete 








SHOT CONTAINER 


EXTENSION LEVER ARM — 


c 


TEST SPECIMEN 2"BOLT- 
a 


CONCRETE BASE 


Fic. 1.—Apparatus used in making transverse tests of concrete specimens 


The Illinois Department of Public Works has tested 
a great many cores drilled from concrete a ror 
and in common with the experience in other States 
has found a wide variation to‘’exist in the compressive 
strength of the cores taken from the same job. The 
results have been such as to suggest that the nonuni- 
formity may be due to the conditions surrounding the 
test rather than variation in the quality of the concrete. 
If such is the case this test indicates neither the true 
compressive nor the flexural strength of the slab. To 
throw light on this point a series of laboratory tests 
was conducted to determine the relation between the 
flexural and compressive strengths of the same concrete. 

Two hundred test beams were cast, 2 from each of 100 
batches and each beam was 6 by 8 by 30 inches 1n size. 
The beams were divided into three groups and one group 
tested at 14 days, another at 28 days and the third at 
90 days. ‘Two transverse tests were made on each beam 
and three compressive tests were made on cores drilled 
from the sections broken in the transverse test. 

The transverse strengths were determined by a 
method developed by the Illinois laboratory which 
has been found to be very satisfactory. The beams 
are supported as cantilevers and a wooden extension 
arm is secured to their free ends. At its outer end the 
extension arm carries a bucket, as shown in Figure 1, 
into which shot or water is permitted to flow from 


another container equipped with a quick-acting valve. 
Uniform application of load is thus assured, and the 
flexural stress at the instant of breaking can be com- 
puted by taking into account the weight of the over- 
hanging part of the specimen and that of the extension 
arm as well as the weight of the bucket and the shot 
or water it contains. The length of the specimen 
and the method of mounting are such as to permit 
more than one test to be made on each specimen; 
and it is particularly interesting to note that the 
results of tests of the same specimen rarely vary by 
more than a small percentage, and that exact coin- 
cidence of results is not uncommon. Figure 2 illustra- 
tes the apparatus in use.’ 

An’ interesting comparison of the flexural and 
compressive tests of identical specimens is afforded 
by Table 1 in which are listed the results of the two 
kinds of tests on 15 specimens chosen at random from 
the 200 beams tested. For each specimen the table 
shows the results of two transverse and two compres- 
sive tests and the differences between them expressed 
in pounds per square inch and as percentages of the 
minimum strength observed for each beam. 


TABLE 1.—Comparison of transverse and compressive strength 
of concrete specimens 















































Transverse Strength | Compressive strength 
{ 
bee Difference in strength ane Difference in strength | 
Pounds per | Pounds per Pounds per } Pounds per | 
squareinch .squareinch| Per cent square inch squareinch;| Per cent 
| ee 0.5 | 1008--.------) goa | 76 
: ane) Cee Co (eee 56.2 
ae 08 | Bes} |S | am 
ee |e 6.8 | Sao cf 880 | Oa 
cy) 26 || S400 cf 4600 | 782 
| aoe a ee a 
ee | 102 | Pq y | aa | 188 
oes | et a ee, em 
ee ne Oe Pein cy om | ma 
1 16 4 hao 2] 410 | 94.6 
a a 5.00 Tsp" = 1880 | 105.4 
a 3 | Feo} = ato | 8H 
a Ce. 0.8 | Soo} | 988 | 46.8 
ee et ee i 
ee a, | A 
| Average... .-- ae 3.7 | Average...--- ae 72 
— als ee 
The wide variation between the compressive 


strengths observed for the same specimen is typical 
of the difference observed in tests of cores drilled from 
the same sections of concrete pavement. That no 
such difference exists in the actual strength of the 
concrete is clearly indicated by the remarkable con- 








1 This apparatus is now being used by # number of other laboratories including 
that of the Bureau of Public Roads. 


67 


68 


PUBLIC ROADS 


Vol. 7, No.3, May, 1926 














sistency of the transverse tests. The location and dis- 


tribution of the coarse aggregate within the core as well 
as the nature and size of the coarse aggregate underlying 
the surface doubtless affect the compressive test results; 
and the different moduli of elasticity of the coarse aggre- 
gate and the surrounding mortar must also be considered, 
especially when the cores are tested in a universal testing 
machine which applies the load at a nonuniform rate. 





Fic.2.—Apparatus used in determining transverse breaking strength of concrete 
eams 

Analysis of the results of these tests suggests several 
questions, among which the following seem to be of suffi- 
cient importance to warrant further investigation: 
(1) Does the nature and strength of the outer layer or 
tensile fiber control the break in the transverse test or 
does the whole cross section at the plane of failure con- 
trol it? (2) To what extent does the relative moisture 
content in cylinders and beams affect the respective 
test results? (3) To what degree does the rate of 
application of the load affect the test results? (4) 
Does the drilling of cores with the Calyx core drill 
cause any structural damage to the resulting core that 
reveals itself in the compression test? 

Mainly to provide the answers to these questions 
the committee on tests and investigation of the Amer- 

ican Association of State Highway Officials has planned 
a series of tests to be assigned to various cooperating 
agencies including the Illinois highway laboratory. 
The tests contemplated are as follows: 

1. A series of tests on drilled and cast cores of con- 
crete in which bearing areas have been carefully pre- 
pared by the arrangement of a given number of pieces 
of coarse aggregate. This test is suggested by G. W. 
Hutchinson, former testing engineer of the North Caro- 
lina Highway Commission. It has the object of deter- 
mining the effect of the distribution of aggregate on 
compressive strength. Tests will be varied to include 
many combinations of aggregates. Age variation will 
not be an important factor. 

2. Tests to determine the effect of drilling on the 
strength of cores. 

3. ‘Tests to determine the distribution of fiber stress in 
concrete beams. This may be accomplished by testing 
specially constructed beams having monolithic built-up 
layers of various types and thicknesses of concrete. 

4. tl tony of a compression test in which 
uniform application of load is obtained. 

5. A-series of tests to determine the effect of moisture 
content on both compressive and transverse strength 
of concrete. 


During the last four months the Bureau of Public 
Roads in cooperation with the Delaware River Bridge 
Joint Commission has conducted tests on concrete slabs 
similar in design to those used on the Delaware River 
bridge but smaller in size. This bridge now nearing 
completion is the longest suspension bridge yet con- 
structed. The span between towers is 1,750 feet and 
the bridge is carried by two 30-inch cables. 

The floor system consists of 6-inch concrete slabs of 
1:14:38 mix with a 21-inch asphaltic wearing sur- 
face. The slabs are 57 feet long, by 41 feet wide and 
are supported by girders spaced 3 feet, 10 inches and 
running parallel to the long axis of the slab. The slabs 
are reinforced with fabricated trusses 414 inches deep, 
spaced 6 inches on centers and running normal to the 
supporting girders and also with 14-inch round, de- 
formed bars spaced 6 inches in the bottom and 12 inches. 
in the top, both sets running parallel to the girders. 

To check the adequacy of this design a slab similar in 
design and method of support but with only one-sixth 
the area and without the asphaltic surface was con- 
structed at the Arlington experimental station of the 
bureau. Materials were the same as those used in the 
bridge floor. Test cylinders of the concrete showed a 
compressive strength of 5,000 pounds per square inch. 

The first test consisted of applying a static load at 
the center of the slab in increments of 7,500 pounds up 
to a total of 30,000 pounds. Stresses in the top and 
bottom of the slab along both axes were measured 
with graphic strain-gauges. These gauges were also . 
used to measure the stresses in the reinforcing trusses 
directly beneath the load. Deflection of the slab 
was measured at various points. As a result of this 
test, the entire slab was found to act as a simple plate, 
deflection being practically symmetrical about both 
axes. The maximum stress found in the trusses was 
11,000 pounds per square inch. Maximum compres- 
sion in the concrete was 580 pounds per square inch 
along the axis normal to the supporting beams and 
1,200 pounds per square inch along the other axis. 
The deflection under the 30,000 pound load was 0.1 
inch and no permanent set was found. 

Impact tests were next made at the quarter point 
of the slab and centrally between supporting beams. 

‘he impact machine was adjusted to represent a wheel 
load of 15,000 pounds, the unsprung weight being 
2,060 pounds, and this load was dropped one-half inch. 
A series of 3,000 blows was delivered, resulting in the 
formation of four hair cracks under the load extending 
outward for a distance of 14 to 18 inches. These 
cracks were 6 to 8 inches in length at 300 blows and 
showed no increase after 1,000 blows. The maximum 
deflection was 0.120 inch and no permanent set was 
measurable. 

The impact machine was then moved to a new point 
and adjusted to give a drop of one inch without change 
in loading. The impact pressure developed was 18,540 
pounds which is approximately equivalent to that of a 
74%-ton truck with maximum ives ota After 3,000 
blows no change was noted other than the formation of 
six hair cracks, under the load, 16 to 18 inches long, 
although the slab was loosened on the supporting 
beams and moved diagonally about two inches. 

From these tests it is concluded that the design is 
sufficient for any loading likely to come upon the bridge. 
Additional tests are now being made to secure informa- 
tion for use in designing this type of slab. 


O 





ROAD PUBLICATIONS OF BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS 


Applicants are urgently requested to ask only for those publications in which they are 
particularly interested. The Department can not undertake to supply complete sets 
nor to send free more than one copy of any publication to any one person. The editions 
of some of the publications are necessarily limited, and when the Department’s free supply 
is exhausted and no funds are available for procuring additional copies, applicants are 
referred to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, thts city, who 
has them for sale at a nominal price, under the law of January 12,1895. Those publica- 
tions in this list, the Department supply of which is exhausted, can only be secured by 
purchase from the Superintendent of Documents, who is not authorized to furnish pub- 


lications free. 
ANNUAL REPORTS 


Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1924. 
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Roads, 1925. 


DEPARTMENT BULLETINS 


No. 105. Progress Report of Experiments in Dust Prevention 
and Road Preservation, 1913. 
*136. Highway Bonds. 20c. 
220. Road Models. 
257. Progress Report of Experiments in Dust Preven- 
tion and Road Preservation, 1914. 
*314. Methods for the Examination of Bituminous Road 
Materials. 10c. 
*347. Methods for the Determination of the Physical 
Properties of Road-Building Rock. 10c. 
*370. The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building 
Rock. 15c. 
386. Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the Middle 
Atlantic States, 1914. 
387. Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the Southern 
States, 1914. 
388. Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the New 
England States, 1914. 
390. Public Road Mileage and Revenues in the United 
States, 1914. A Summary. 
407. Progress Reports of Experiments in Dust Preven- 
tion and Road Preservation, 1915. 
*463. Earth, Sand-Clay, and Gravel Roads. 15c. 
*532. The Expansion and Contraction of Concrete and 
Concrete Roads. 10c. 
*537. The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building Rock 
in 1916, Including all Compression Tests. 5c. 
*583. Reports on Experimental Convict Road Camp, 
Fulton County, Ga. 25c. 
*660. Highway Cost Keeping. 10c. 
670. The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building 
Rock in 1916 and 1917. | 
*691. Typical Specifications for Bituminous Road Mate- 
rials. 10c. 
*724. Drainage Methods and Foundations for County 
Roads. 20c. 
*1077. Portland Cement Concrete Roads. 15c. 
*1132. The Results of Physical Tests of Road-Building 
Rock from 1916 to 1921, Inclusive. 10c. 
1216. Tentative Standard Methods of Sampling and Test- 


ing Highway Materials, adopted by the American 
Association of State Highway Officials and ap- 
proved by the Secretary of Agriculture for use 
in connection with Federal-aid road construction. 


No. 1259. Standard Specifications for Steel Highway Bridges; 


No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


REPRINTS 


Vol. 


Vol. 
Vol. 











60. 


*338. 
*505. 


Highway Officials and approved by the Secretary 
of Agriculture for use in connection with Federal- 
aid road work. 


9. Rural Highway Mileage, Income and Expenditures, 


1921 and 1922. 


DEPARTMENT CIRCULARS 


. TNT as a Blasting Explosive. 
. Standard Specifications for Corrugated Metal Pipe 


Culverts. 


MISCELLANEOUS CIRCULARS 


Federal Legislation Providing for Federal Aid in 
Highway Construction. 


FARMERS’ BULLETINS 


Macadam Roads.  5e. 


Benefits of Improved Roads. 5c. 


SEPARATE REPRINTS FROM THE YEARBOOK 


ea es 


*739. 
*849. 
914. 


Design of Public Roads. 5c. 
Federal Aid to Highways, 1917. 
Roads. 5c. 

Highways and Highway Transportation. 


ie 


OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS BULLETIN 


*45, 


Data for Use in Designing Culverts and Short-span 
Bridges. (1913.) 15c. 


OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY CIRCULARS 


59, 


161. 


. Motor Vehicle Registrations and Revenues, 1914. 


Automobile Registrations, Licenses, and Revenues 
in the United States, 1915. 


. State Highway Mileage and Expenditures to January 


1; 1916. 


. Width of Wagon Tires Recommended for Loads of 


Varying Magnitude on Earth and Gravel Roads. 
oc 


. Automobile Registrations, Licenses, and Revenues 


in the United States, 1916. 

Rules and Regulations of the Secretary of Agricul- 
ture for Carrying out the Federal Highway Act 
and Amendments Thereto. 


FROM THE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL 
RESEARCH 


. 17, D— 2. Effect of Controllable Variables Upon 
the Penetration Test for Asphalts and 
Asphalt Cements. 

Apparatus for Measuring the Wear of 
Concrete Roads. 

. A New Penetration Needle for Use in 

Testing Bituminous Materials. 

. Influence of Grading on the Value of 
Fine Aggregate Used in Portland Ce- 
ment Concrete Road Construction. 

. Toughness of Bituminous Aggregates. 

. Tests of a Large-Sized Reinforced-Con- 
crete Slab Subjected to Eccentric 
Concentrated Loads. 


















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