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UNIYERSITY OF ALBERTA
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
The undersigned hereby certify that they have
read and recommend to the School of Graduate Studies
for acceptance, a thesis entitled A REVIEW OF SCIENCE
10 AS A COURSE IN INTEGRATED PHYSICAL SCIENCE ?/ITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS BACKGROUND, PURPOSES,
BIPLEIvlENTATION AND CLASSROOM PRESENTATION submitted
by Douglas Haig Jardine in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Education.
PROFESSOR
V.
PROFESSOR
PROFESSOR
August, 1956
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THE UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA
A REVIEW OF SCIENCE 10
AS A COURSE IN INTEGRATED PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Vi^ITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS BACKGROUND, PURPOSES,
IMPLEMENTATION AND CLASSROOM PRESENTATION
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED
TO THE COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDIES
IN PARTIAL FULFIUffiM’ OF THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
BY
DOUGLAS HAIG JARDMS
EDMONTON, ALBERTA
August, 1956
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ACKN01(1/LEDG-EL/iEKTS
To the teachers who were kind enough to fill in the
questionnaire ....
To the officials of the Department of Education,
Mr. J.C. Yates, LIr. A.B. Evenson and Mr. H.G. Sweet, who
readily supplied information requested by the writer ....
To the members of the thesis committee,
Mr. E.C. Melsness, Dr. H.^. MacGregor, Mr. H.T. Sparby, and
Mr. G. Hampson, who gave patient and sympathetic guid¬
ance ....
To these, and to all others who assisted in the
preparation of this work, the writer sincerely acknowledges
his debt.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OF TABLES v
CHAPTER
!• BACKOHOuND AND PURPOSES OF ‘THE STUDY.. 1
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE: AIMS OF
TEACHINU SCIENCE . 8
III. REVIEW OF THS LITERATURE: MAKING THS
SCIENCE CURRICULmi FUNCTIONAL. B8
IV. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE: FACTORS IN A
MODERN SCIENCE PROGRAM. 40
1. Teachers of Science and Their
Qualifications . 40
2. The Science Classroom and Laboratory
Facilities . 50
3. The Textbook -- Its Structure and Use 55
4. Experimentation and Demonstration .... 65
5. Evaluation in Science .. 75
V. PHYSICAL SCIENCE -- THE INTEGRATED COURSE ... 85
A. Review of the Literature. 85
B. Implementing Physical Science in
Alberta .. 92
C. Science 10 -- Nature and Aims . 96
VI. THE QUESTlOiUlAIRE AND ITS RESULTS .. 102
Teachers^ Qualifications . 108
Facilities Available for Science Teaching 110
Purposes of Teaching Science .. 116
The Authorized Text and Its Use . 125
iii
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TABLJ^ OF CONTENTS
(CONTimED)
CHAPTER PAGE
VI. CONTINUED
Experimentation and Demonstration.. 131
Evaluation... 137
Comments on Course in General . 143
VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOIVMENDATIONS . 148
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 157
APPENDIX...
A. Tlie Q,uestionnaire .. 160
B. Covering Letter to Questionnaire . 171
iv
LIST OF TABLES
table page
!• Experience of Teachers . 105
II. Training of Teachers Beyond Grade XII . 106
III. Xuniber of Teachers in Schools of
Various Sizes . 106
IV. Degree of Specialization in Science . 107
V. The Science Room and Its Facilities. Ill
VI. Location of Laboratory Facilities . 113
VII. Have You Enough Materials and Equipment to
Demonstrate and Experiment Frequently/ and
Effectively? . 114
VIII. Is Mastery of Content the Prime Concern in
Science Teaching? . 116
IX. Do You Teach for Intangible Outcomes
Deliberately and Definitely? . 117
X. Reasons for Hot Teaching Deliberately
for Intangible Outcomes .. 118
XI. Intangible Outcomes Sought in
Order of Importance . 119
XII. Methods of Teaching fcr Intangibles ......... 120
XIII. Number of Teachers Evaluating
Intangible Outcomes . 121
XIV. Methods of Evaluating Growth in the
Intangible Outcomes . 122
XV. How Teachers Use the Basic Textbook. 126
XVI. Opinions of the Basic Textbook . 127
XVII. Opinions Upon Certain Aspects of the Basic
Textbook by Teachers Deliberately Concerned
with Intangible Outcomes .. 128
V
LIST OF TABLES
(COlNi'TINQED)
table page
XVIII. Extent to V/hich Teachers Experiment
and Demonstrate . 132
XIX. Extent to Vi/hich Pupils Are Able to Experiment
and Demonstrate by Themselves . 132
XX. Reasons for Pupil Eon-Participation in
Experimental Work . 133
XXI. Purposes of Laboratory Activities . 134
aJ.11. Do You Regard Constant Testing As A Vital
Part of Your Program? ... 137
XXIII. Frequency of Foriaal Testing ... 137
XXrv. Do You Give Comprehensive Tests? . 138
XXV. Purposes for Which Tests Are Given .. 138
aJMI. Relative Importance of Various Types of
Questions in Testing Mastery of Content . 139
XXVII. Extent to Which Marks Are Given for Work
Other Than Performances on Formal Tests. 140
XXVIIL Sources of Marks Other Than Formal Tests .... 141
XXIX. Computation of the Final Mark for the
Year’s Work .. 141
XXX. Opinions of the Integrated Course .. 145
XXXI. General Opinions of the Course by Specialized
and Experienced Science Teachers .. 146
iCXXII. Opinions of the Integrated Course by
Specialized and Experienced Science Teachers . 146
Vi
CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
INTRODUCTION
Science was not always considered an acceptable
school subject and *^systems of education have been slow to
recognize the value of science.”^ Nevertheless, with its
increasing importance in human affairs during the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, science inevitably found a certain
place in the schools of the time. Its position became in¬
creasingly secure a hundred years ago when such eminent
thinkers as Spencer and Huxley championed its claim to edu¬
cational recognition and, today, few people will question its
validity as a school subject.
It is now an integral part of our high school curri¬
culum, and ®there is wider interest and increased enrolment
in science courses.”
Nor is the reason for its present prominence difficult
to find. The modern industrial world was created by science
and the implications of scientific knowledge influence the
^G.W. Hunter, Science Teaching at Junior and Senior
High School Levels , p. 15.
National Society for the Study of Education, Science
Education in American Schools, 46th Yearbook, p. 294.
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daily lives of each one of us. The resulting challenge to
our schools seems a clear one: that scientific discoveries
be intelligently understood and their applications be used
to worthy ends. Thus, ”as educational opportunities for all
and for longer periods are used more widely, more effectively,
there is imperative need for increase in education by means
3
Of science and for spread of scientific knowledge.« As our
scientific society becomes more conplex, science teachers
can reasonably anticipate continued emphasis upon their sub¬
ject. The 46th Yearbook states this fact very clearly: "The
alternative to omitting, reducing, or failing to improve and
increase science education is to deny the achievements and
4
impact made by science in modern living."
But while the validity of science as a high school
subject remains unchallenged, the aims and methods of science
instruction have caused much concern to educators. Bor the
past few decades, the purposes of science teaching have been,
as have the aims of many other subjects, under persistent
criticism from dissatisfied educators. These attacks have
been answered by vigourous re-statements of the traditional
positions or by re-assessments and revisions. liow to keep
the aims of science teaching consistent with the aims of
modern education, as defined in each period, has taken the
^ Ibld .. p- 13. ^ Ibld .. p. 17.
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energies of many concerned with an optimum development of the
possibilities of science as a school subject. Even today
the matter is not settled# fhe modern teacher, no longer
concerned with the question, "Shall we teach science in our
high schools?", still faces its sequel, "How are we going
to teach it, and to what end?"
Evidence of this concern with educational aims is
seen also in Alberta# In 1952 a new science course was
introduced into grade ten in the provincial high schools.
Science 10, as this course is called, represented the first
step in a general revision of the entire high school science
program# Its significance, however, does not end here# It
is not just another science course, re-arranged and brought
up-to-date factually# Science 10 acquires an additional
importance in that it is the culmination of many trends
which have influenced our educational thinking. In the aims
of this course, science teachers will note a decided change
of emphasis; they cannot be neglectful of its implications.
PURPOSES OF THIS STUDY
Many teachers will welcome the newer approach; others
will be antagonistic to it; more may be uncertain of just what
is involved# But, in any case, a study of the new course, its
background and practicability is an important task for all
science instructors# Whether they will agree or not with its
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aims is, at present, beside the point; disagreement or con¬
formity must be intelligently directed. Thus, a need to
examine carefully the important phases of Science 10 is im¬
perative. This thesis has been v/ritten in an attempt to
meet this need*
This study in its attempt to evaluate the Science 10
program must consider fully the aims behind the course, but
any appraisal would be inadequate if it concerned itself with
these alone* For a more balanced view, two other factors
must be considered as well* These are the classroom teacher
and the facilities with which he has to work* As ”the major
- 5
factor in gaining improvement in science education” the
teacher has a great responsibility. No matter how well-
founded the aims of any course may be, their implementation
could come to nothing if the teacher is ignorant of or un¬
sympathetic to these aims, if he is poorly qualified as an
instructor, or if his facilities are unduly restricted* If
this be true in an established course, how much more vital
is the teacher’s role in a new course which purports to
alter many of the traditional objectives of the subject?
In the light of the above, the purposes of this study
are as follows:
. p. 295.
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5
1. To review, by reference to authoritative studies in the
field, educational opinion on the nature and aims of the
modern high-school science program. This task is at¬
tempted by:
a. surveying historically the relevant trends and
noting their influence upon present-day concepts
of science teaching.
b. determining the principles basic to the physical
science and the integrated physical science
programs.
e. reviewing opinion on many factors (use of text,
training of teachers, etc.) inherent in the
presentation of a modern course in science.
S. To gain specific insight into the nature of Science 10 by:
a. discerning the influence of the above trends and
principles upon the construction of this course.
b. reviewing the actual steps in its implementation.
c. analysing the Curriculum Guide for an official
declaration of aims and purposes.
3. To determine by means of a questionnaire:
a. teacher reaction to the aims of Science 10.
b. teacher opinion on the value of the present
Science 10 course as an effective high-school
subject.
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c* the conditions under v/hich it is being taught,
(teachers’ qualifications, equipment, etc.)
4. To assess from the above what may be the strong and
weak points of Science 10.
5. To suggest means of improvement wherever shortcomings
appear to exist either in the construction of the course
or in its presentation.
Lmi TAT IONS OF THE STUDY
The writer is aware that several factors may restrict
the effectiveness of the study in its appraisal of the actual
teaching of Science 10. A questionnaire, at best, enjoys
only a limited circulation; its construction may be defec¬
tive in certain respects; furthermore, some teachers complete
it thoughtlessly.
Again, much of the data may be difficult to appraise
accurately. It is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness
of any teacher’s presentation of the course by merely indica¬
ting his years of training and some of the conditions under
which he works.
It is hoped, however, that the diversity of replies
has revealed a representative picture, that the careful con¬
struction of the questionnaire has given much pertinent data,
and that the teachers on the whole have answered with care.
The writer is confident that the information collec-
5
v.raoci oi; 1 xlolil’.; ’xal-raj a.toi:*J'If)noo axicf' .o . ;
,;y:L‘^u.(d.:oo ^ ^ aisxlOi^isa';
i^r.L .^:':ozt^r a>;IJ ccf vjciJi' otj;Jv; ^ /ocfe mo^‘': ^:;a9ae6 oV
.C.: Boiv^ioij to atriioq.
- • i-r '1 Lao'iota *:::9V8T0nv/ vriO:..a.v’O'xqra-: to 3X!i30iii tsoggui’ o;.
o:iu iG ;:gJ-ogj^j 0 oLt xri taixd 'ibaaqG
• rroixl'ixtnaao'Ki ai ’xo
- ■ ■ '.■ a>v:L -'XV"
- ■ ■'
" ■ TuLra :.La: '^[o x,^oiti;nLiJ;
wGl'XtaO'I Z3:A .^aiOtOBa io‘:a97i:/3 aTSWXJ £i ’iSux'XW
roartOB Gr:j- iGatjri-^qcB Goi ni. o.-."- to aasuavta-ootte ott
aqo-—."-ao'f , o'x.LBiiXXQx: toaifp l .01 ooxaeioci ^niLaao;!-
^-ootaP a--:, qa;,. no rtoxx'xoo : rtoia-Bix/oiio a ^ino
G. Gc: ^ O'- ;stosqao“i xixbo’xgo r^i dtx;;’
"'■ "■• :G30.iLxi:?3I'OLt at
Ga.G.o^a ':■ oc qa;;: zz^-b oLt to
3aenGvx:i-GGtta oilx cLbb-l^; vo oz tl -oittxx) ai d"! ,
- joxi '-: '>C‘iO:n LX oo-:7oo aix to iK>x;tatrroaotc o *-xarL lob to
T 0 jx:'. c. :ro 1 j.: o r: o; • o.it
9fac r; r)r:B.:^^ixtio ‘xo o*ib9l bIx' gxiit
?: ..
■• ‘ B[-.
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L'io'ceo-or;. .j-ix^tor.; OvLu^t- ..
•L. '101-.. XlGVXO, .07' ^ O XHOX 0B
. :r't erf doi'Vs
• .'Gui^ri G t ,. X
01 q o'x B b o .C 0 / X' O' s 3 r,f
a,..p ext,' ‘o,. lioxtox/ttr,
- . . ijo'rov/^, •• ova.. ;.;.u :xo g-isogcoj* aot to,'/ Oxxb
ovt'jo r:oi^ -nx j i: 1 o. . t£..t J.xGoXtooo at ‘xg::,Li.v oot
7
ted can serve as a source of valid generalizations when con¬
sidered in the aggregate. These generalizations, in turn,
will serve to direct attention to any strengths and weak¬
nesses in the construction and teaching of the course.
-noo itoi'v,' 3:iol-ji/siL*to so'iuoe e
' %
::I t 9a%iV
-tHo a vi.o ot rioiuXieJ^uB
. I't'joc ori;; ’io ::;xiixiooo 3 '
%
a.?. 07^1^58 iiBo
0 oi'Id' rti
*
■ilb o:t O'.n’aa IXtw.
[00 adt al asaaori
^Sl
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE: AB^IS OF TEACHING SCIENCE
INTRODUCTION
That our conception of the purposes of science in¬
struction has changed greatly is evident after even a casual
reading of the literature on the subject. «The purpose of
teaching physics is to teach physics — what more?’»^ — that
succinct question and answer of the 1930*s can no longer
satisfy the thoughtful present-day science teacher if he has
done some reading in his field. He cannot avoid being aware
of newer orientations and trends — trends which seem to be
drastically altering the once conventional aims of his chosen
subject.
The word ’trends* suggests some sort of continuity.
In educational thought, as in most other fields, newer ideas
have arisen progressively to challenge and modify the older
ones. Indeed, some dissatisfaction with current aims of
science education seems to have been evident for almost as
long as people have looked critically at the conditions of
public instruction. The importance of science in human
^National Society for the Study of Education, A Pro ¬
gram for Teaching Science , 31st Yearbook, p. 346.
'r;- -:! ' : '. aaiToaioCTiLt
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to ^e^'-r-xijo Oi-Tx”' , i} 0 GOjLra Q.d7 no ll end- to r^ninBO*!
isri'. 1 -. ^”v5'xor- d-3.:‘rr r,** soic’-rxfq rloeed- od- ei: aoxa^^i^lq gnirlonau
': io^;iol on ftBO 3' tS9I aii;^ to "iov/ena nnB HOidasjLrp toniooua
m 0:1 U -^snonoo oor'ojoa '!^:'3£>“d-rxeeenq iutxr::SiX;ond' ^xiu vteid-aa
c-ii^\i£ MTiocf rxove foxnrno s'!-: .bloXt six! nt edoo onob
: a
# ,
OfC od- ::o:-5a n'r-Inv; abne'iy -- abne'id-r .bxiB Sii^vitBd-neXio 'revxen to
::ea-j:^o axif to, axiio Xer'oxtnevnoo ooxxo sxft ijllsoitasib
:.■ I'Cr ’\ ^. ~~
^ -.teatdun
■ ‘ 0
. xl' lU'd'noo to d ice ^erxoa oJ-asggxrci *sb:;ed: t’ b'xovv oili*
'lev.-jn /s'blert n^rluo d-com nf'e.p ^Inxxoi.taox/be nl
’- % _ .?i
BaiSv v/iito'-’ b'lii e^n^.llBdo cd sao-isc/iq nosi'ia oraxl
t* •• xB dno‘i-iiJD rxoxd-enteid-Baali) o^oa .boebrZ . dano
d iOflilc -xot dfioj;:v9 BeaX ever:* ut BiiEooa :icj:dBox;be tionetoa
to x;.:j lu tonoo ailt de vtlaoid't'xo neijlool evnn alcoei ao gnci
nsr.'jj.i ni 3:.ii;:»Ioo to ooned'ioqxix arfx .riot toxoid ant otXcfL'q
< b‘ to yil.; *I0t • "Jd-c tooc; 13/10X^6,.“^
* ^‘ ' * t-looo’iea . . go net o s ri no T xfot ,a.
9
affairs helped secure science a place in the high school
curriculum; the increasingly cogent effect of science upon
the modern world has created steady demands that scientific
understandings be made a more vital factor in our every day
lives. In many important studies unfavourable appraisals of
current programs have formed a consistent theme. A common
criticism of traditional aims is set dom concisely by the
31st Yearbook as "none of these is being effectively attained,
and, as commonly conceived, none is worthy of the potential-
2
ities of the subject."
Criticism, however, has not been entirely destruc¬
tive; with great vigour newer aims and concomitant methods
have been proposed to replace the old. The question, "What
is wrong with the older aims and what better aims can we use
in their place?" would seem to be the concern of the authori¬
tative investigators. To any student in the field of science
teaching, the answers to this question provide an enriching
background.
Although this thesis is primarily concerned with the
effectiveness of the Science 10 course, that effectiveness
must be measured against the aims of the course, and these
aims, in turn, cannot be properly understood v/ithout some
knowledge of the trends which have influenced them. It is
loyiloa orlJ' ni 3 ooiisxya 3'ij;oeB i>9ql0ii;
ood^i'o:: 'lo ooy’ils d-n9::j,09 .Yigrtloae'-xoiti: &sit ^itiuJsJOxi.is;p
lii.*:-JHaJ: oe ai:>rff3i5i6£j ■^^jsocJ'a ibud’sq'iQ 3Bi^ bl^iow a’x^bom 'Bdf
vjur. -/iavs MBO rii 'iguCBl: iBj'lv a OPiXi S3axf;>xia4va'xg]:)£m
* . ’■"SvSfv
TO alasiiK'xgqB 3j.d‘a'ij;ovi-ja:r;B ifiia:t'‘;ocjai YaBin nX
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noi^oo A . j493'Gi:enoo e Xiagv'xe'i evBd axaBT-o^iu
^ ®
rj.rf^ X'i ^rl3ai'^:ir.o iT/.-OD X 93 9 “ 3^X6 Jj^XiOXu XjbBl'X lo xnalOXitl'iO
beiilBj:U vXsvxu ga‘i‘19 :^nxo<f aX ©3&xf;J ,.ia -^rcon** as iood^xaaX JalS'
-xBxJrie^foq axlu lo ai enoa ,iDSYlaoxroo '^Xnoi^oa aa jbMB
a '- ■ 'd '.- oe[,cfi;a ©xiu lo aaitl
’ ^ ^ > ' ■":v . ■ i . * . .
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Dei' evr nco a^aix; ’leJJ-ya Xaiiv/ i>xxG aia.i a ’srll IXiv/ vr^^o^xr- ox
-’•'lOilXoe aAoX ‘‘xo iiiooxfoo alit- Id o^T/naos jalxrov; ’•S'ooBiq Txoiio" ni:
ig, s
s"::i’JXOc 10 ' bl Oil s:',i xxx^ ^ffiab.Vv s. ^cfB .oT ..a'lclBoivtaeviiJ: avxitau
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8l .aorlt beenexfl'nil evsh ..oxiiw abito'il Oder lo e^bolv/on^
10
the purpose of this chapter, then, to survey the literature
on the aims of science instruction, to note the emergence
of important newer ideas, to discover the nature of the more
established ones they attempted to modify, and, finally, to
set out a few of the more prominent attempts to orientate
the curriculum towards ’modem’ aims in science education.
TRADITIONAL A BIS
In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the
university exerted an increasingly stringent control over not
only the content of the high school courses but over their
methods of presentation as well. ”What fits for college,
3
fits for life,” seemed to be the slogan. Nevertheless, this
influence was viewed uneasily by many who succeeded in adding
a number of ’practical* courses whose aims v/ere directed
toward preparation for life rather than toward a direct
4
preparation for college. Although many of these newer sub¬
jects, history, modern languages, etc,, are common today,
their inclusion into the curriculum of the 70*s and 80*s was
not entirely welcome. They were **the modern and practical
subjects at which the college looked askance and mental dis-
ciplinists openly cast scorn and ridicule.” Yet, despite
%orth Central Association, Hi^h School Curriculum
Re-organization , p. 7,
^Ibid.
^Ibld
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11
this disdain, these courses did receive a measure of support:
The idea of a high school that should frankly and with¬
out unnecessary indirection steer toward the more im¬
mediate demands of citizenship, occupation and local
leadership was too well-suited to the ambitions of our
practical minded citizens and too much in accord with
out ever developing notions of democracy to be sub¬
dued. °
In an attempt to set the educational house in order,
the National Nducational Association set up a committee in
1892 one of whose tasks, in reviewing the high school scene,
was to set forth the proper aims of instructions in the
secondary schools. The committee, composed largely of col¬
lege teachers and established educational leaders, published
its findings in 1893 as the Report of the Committee of Ten *
This report is valuable as a declaration of authoritative
opinion at the turn of the century.
Its conclusions are interesting. Preparation for the
duties of life was considered to be the major purpose of the
high school but only for *Hhat small proportion of all chil¬
dren ... who show themselves able to profit from an educa-
7
tion prolonged to the eighteenth year.” The case for an
exclusive high school is clearly implied. The reference to
’preparation for life’, therefore, despite its modern ring,
has a far from modern connotation. Capable pupils were to
be prepared for life through the intellectual training they
. p. 8.
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12
received in mastering academic subjects. The method was the
thing and the value derived from any subject ?ms measured
against the criterion of the intellectual discipline it
afforded. Instruction should be ”intellectually thorough,
Q
consecutive and disciplinary^. As the v/ell-established
subjects, such as Latin, Greek and mathematics best provided
this discipline, they viere to be preferred to the nev/er
practical or life-centred ones v/hose study ^^lacked the more
venerable, the surer training derived from long-continued
g
Greek, Latin and mathematics." Yet the latter v/ere not
entirely valueless; within a conservative range they could,
provided they were properly taught, even be accepted for
college entrance. "What fits for life will also fit for col¬
lege if it is academic and rightly taught.It would
appear that intellectually rigourous methods were presumed to
have a double value: they made certain subjects worthy of col¬
lege acceptance, and they provided intellectual training
which in its own right was preparation for life.
In 1932 the 31st Yearbook of the National Society
for the Study of Education neatly summed up the older aims
as they applied particularly to training in physics and
chemistry. "The traditional support for physics and chemis-
Ibid
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13
try has been stated in terms of il) formal discipline, [2]
knowledge, (3) college preparation,”^^
It would appear that the high school of the time
sought to provide training for the mind — a training most
effectively acquired by a thorough academic study of certain
traditional subjects. Having received this training, the
student v/as not only intellectually disciplined but prepared
for college as well.
These three aims were deemed complementary, each im¬
plied to a degree in the others. The first formal discipline,
is of decided interest because it reflects a psychological
conception formerly used to support the rigourously academic
presentation of a subject, "The common interpretation of the
disciplinary, or training, objective is one which has develop-
12
ed from faculty psychology” which held that the mind is com¬
posed of certain discrete faculties each of which could be
trained through a definite type of mental activity, ’Thus,
for example, the faculty of xmemory could be developed by
memorizing detailed data, and the power of observation by
meticulous laboratory ?/ork. Intellectually-thorough subject
matter became revered as an indispensable tool in education
because mastering it provided the required exercise for the
31st Tearbook, p. 24.
^^ Ibid ,, p. 26.
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Xo^iio*.. ‘j .0 o^vj' odinilon o rfaiO'O'ur boi.io'XxT
.'••vno;:. V. '.iMoos-. oixx .oXcoOBxe 'lol
ia 'xa-ooq OiiO 1)33 , ojci) oo.xX^.:ra.o ■a
... ( ' ..
. -vi,';;;i; .v -.;.I.; s-->Uof.:X . I- M i-ioJc-xo al auoIjoXJaa
I’’'*) '■ w" £0 '<> * '■ - ’■ - ,. •,
■' i ...0 a...,oO'i.-u a.oJ'd'aXH
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01:
14
mental faculties; ”its very difficulty was valuable as a
13
discipline.”
For this purpose, the logical organization of speci¬
alized science with its quantity of involved data was held
to be ideally suited:
...It was held that the study of the sciences
possessed particular merits ...; they provided
unique opportunity for mental discipline by training
the faculty of observation, promoting the concentra¬
tion of thought and energy and providing sense train¬
ing through the manipulation of cBterials.^^
Indeed, if the theory cf mental discipline be valid,
the exacting methods of college science ?/ere most appropriate
in the high school science program. The statement, ^^If the
subject matter is given in a thorough way, then the child
15
is bound to get out of it as much as he puts in would
appear, in the light of the above, to be a reasonable con¬
clusion. It readily follows, then, that objectives that
express the disciplinary claiias have invariably had largest
recognition” in many older surveys of teacher opinion.
In surveying the period from 1880 to 1910 w^hich it
IS
Progressive ilducation Association, Science in
General Education , p. 9.
^ ^Ibid ., p. 8.
l^G.W. Hunter, Science Teaching at Junior and Senior
High School Levels , p. 60.
1%.3.3.E., 31st Yearbook, p. 24.
'.d'l.joi'nii) :o0l*IjiOB‘i iBuixail
ai,
.■>.
uadv ,eaoc,‘ir:: axri^r v-St
'* ■■ ':i!;
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^•;:. ;:3B •j.xd v' 0 ‘iq Xna tcj'xo.rjo lo ho.11
I'lslGri , lo iioi: leixjcirtsiu aslii rf 3 ,uo*tdcl' ^rii
'■' eEdl.iB.Trxox: lo . oxil li: .l;oeax:X
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, 17 sr!;-•. /-fa O'd ,c, 7 q 'eor;8i08 loopoa ifYxiil edl nJ:
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... :.:i 10 oi' 8 3 j.{ojji: a O' jj: lo lEo log ol IXiEOO ai
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'XOi‘x.i--l lo ■! oviia iBblo y^^bxi ru '^'^’IloXv ixtiooe*!
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t ioill0X0:1,. lB7sr:s>0
15
regards as "the heyday of forraal disciplinethe Progres¬
sive Education Association noted seme of the effects of
faculty psychology on the science program. Subject matter
was highly formalized, involving a great deal of detailed
classification and systemization. It v/as technical and dif¬
ficult. There was no distinction made between instruction
for college-bound students and instruction for others because
the discipline suitable for college entrance was in itself
valuable to all as mental training. Detailed laboratory work
was stressed for the training it gave in careful observation,
neatness and precision. As all students ?/ere assumed to have
the same mental faculties, little regard was held for indivi-
18
dual differences of particular needs.
CRITICISMS OF TRADITIONAL AHvlS
Criticism of the Disciplinary Aim . To the extent that
they depended upon the theory of mental discipline for
justification, the traditional methods suffered as the vali¬
dity of this psychological foundation was questioned. The
academic emphasis was belittled because it found "justifica-
tion on a theory of mental gymnastics” and because of "the
^'^Progressive Education Association, op. cit ., p. 8.
^Q lbid .
^^North Central Association, op. cit ., p. 9.
-a.
lJ
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16
fallacy of mental discipline,^ In evaluating methods of
science instruction as late as 1938, a writer states:
Though modern psychology has given experimental
proof that the conception of mental discipline is
inadequate, much of current science teaching is not
only congenial to this outmoded theory, but can only
be justified in terms of it. The all too prevalent
practice of requiring the memorization of fixed
quotas of factual materials, the assigning of prob¬
lems selected primarily for their difficulty ... are
evidence of the persistence of the faculty theory of
mind and its correlative education aim, mental
discipline.21
Criticism of the Preparatory Aim . Concomitantly with the
notions of formal discipline, the traditional aims and
methods had been strengthened through their college orien¬
tations. T'irst of all, the subject matter of high-school
science was more or less prescribed for no student could be
admitted to advanced training without a foundation in college-
approved preliminary subject matter. Secondly, examination
and laboratory requirements established by the university
combined to force the rigourous university methods upon the
high-school teaching procedures — methods often justified
in terms of the formal discipline theories now out of favour.
Speaking of college domination of chemistry teaching, Hunter
states:
In 1872 standards began to be set by the colleges
for acceptance of chemistry as a college entrance
^O lbid .
21
'Progressive Iducation Association, op. cit . , p. 9.
*1^ ii--. rrijt’ijlevg-nX *eLth..io.etb to yobII/sI
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laonsrr-X'ti.q^o iiovis oesi vgoIodoYaq i:§4X0.ffr '
r.: t>r;iIqio^ib IcJ-nsi-i to noi ^J'qeoiico edo /loozq
ooii 3 j. ,3nii:ojjav ecnaxoa d'iig'X'Ii/o 'io iloifm. ^^>^EX/p9b3x^l
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to sdcf to eona^'axCcI: lo ©Gpafxi've j
''f Xu;t-n9i=' .i/'j:.B iioX^fioiiXs av^itoloitoo aXi bna 5ixi:m .jJ
.afiXXqioatb
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p’Xa'
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OO'ST.I '9 w' /j. i 0 aa VTXiiX*xJo Xo ooaaXqeooa toX
- a '10 ui^ jl u-C o Ti exi.
17
requirement the result was to emphasize the
techniques of laboratory procedures, to make the
memorization of factual material the chief aim of
the student and to deaden initiative by requiring
a certain nuraber of exercises, all of which had to
be submitted as evidence of having satisfactorily
completed the requirements for college.
husk, considering the same influences on physics teaching
from 1872 to 1905, notes:
During the first twenty years, the influence
was a markedly beneficial one, but during the
remainder of the period, the aim of formal dis¬
cipline, the introduction of too much mathematics,
and the neglect of the directly useful things led
to the re-organization
Many critics complained that all students were receiv¬
ing the training designed for the specialist and that the
other important values of science instruction were being
neglected. Much of the activity in science education
had been in support of subjects and the question of educa¬
tional values for children in the elementary and secondary
24
schools has not been given the prominence it deserves,”
declares the 31st Yearbook in the introduction to its com¬
prehensive study. Morris F. Stubbs in 1927 noted that a
frequent objection against the chemistry teaching of the time
was that ”it aims to turn out chemists rather than intellig-
^%unter, op. cit * , pp. 42-43.
^^Ibid., p. 44.
^^h.S.S.S. , 31st Yearbook, p. ix.
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18
25
ent citizens.” And the 46th Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education discussing this situation
as late as 1947 declares:
We have prepared our students for a variety of
professions in which scientific knowledge and scien¬
tific methods are put to work ... we have failed,
however, to educate through our science, the boys
and girls who are not going to be scientists. We
have not prepared a generation of adults to find
their bearings in an age of science.2^
The validity of this preparatory aim was under attack
for another, but unrelated, reason. The greatly increased
enrolment in the high school provided one of these. This
increase greatly lessened the proportion of pupils planning
to enter college. The 31st Yearbook uses this fact to fur¬
ther depreciate the preparatory aim. ”A large proportion of
pupils who study high school science do not enter college,
and, of those who do, a relatively small proportion will
27
specialize in a field of science.” and adds a further
general condemnation, ^Available data suggest at once that
much of the support for this objective is of doubtful valid-
28
ity.” To add support to this statement, the 31st Y'earbook
Stubbs, ”The Place and Problems of Chemistry
in the High School Curriculum,” School Science and Mathematics ,
(October, 1927), XXVII, p. 742.
^^National Society for the Studs'" of Education, Science
Education in American Schools , 46th Yearbook, pp. 248-249.
^"^N.S.S.E., 31st Yearbook, p. 25.
28lbid.
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19
quotes ’’available data»» from the studies of Noll, Carnog and
Colbert — all of which failed to detect any advantage for
the pupil on the basis of college achievement for having
taken specialized science in the high school.Thus em¬
phasis upon the preparatory objective ”has, in current
practice, resulted in a large amount of wasted effort.
Criticism of the Informative Aim . These objections to
the purely preparatory aims were also, in part, attacks upon
the informative one as well. But to this third aim of tra¬
ditional instruction another criticism was directed. The
desire to impart to the students a broad knowledge of the
field far too often resulted in a pre-occupation with facts
for their own sake. The subject matter had become too com¬
plex, too detailed for effective mastery, and ’*the texts in
31
use have become encyclopedias of information.’* ”We shall
attempt in vain to teach all the factual material that has
been outlined under the special divisions commonly recog-
32
nized,” continues the 31st Yearbook. Often the student was
so entangled in a maze of facts that he failed to get an over¬
view of the essential concepts. In discussing high school
chemistry, the North Central Association study of 1933 des-
^^ Ibld . . pp. 25-26. . p. 26.
51 Ibid .. p. 24. ^^ Ibld .. p. 26.
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20
cribed this subject as ”a confused mass of abstract technical
facts and principles, bearing few discernible relationships
to actual life, but only those internal relationships which
are of interest to trained scientists.To this, after con¬
sidering high school science in general, Hunter adds his con-
demnationj "The chief difficulty with science as it is taught
today seems to be that factual information is amassed for its
34
own sake and not for what it will do." The 31st Yearbook
comments, "Current practices in science teaching and in other
fields have been severely and justly criticized for overemphas¬
is on memory work for the purpose of enabling the pupil to
35
reproduce unrelated facts."
Furthermore, much of this subject matter so labouri-
ously acquired was soon forgotten. Hurd in 1928 dealt with
this matter and put forth a reason which suggests a basis for
reform:
..."Why is it true that three months, or six months
or a year, or two years, after having studied science ...
the average student knows very little about the material
covered in the course?" ... Some teachers might say, it is
because the material was not learned to the point of
mastery. Others might say that it is because the
material is not closely enough associated with the
daily life experiences or the needs of the pupils;
the subject matter does not tie up with life; it doesn^t
function; therefore, it is soon forgotten.
^%orth Central Association, op. cit ., p. 239.
^%lunter, op. cit . , p. 225.
31st Yearbook, p. 59.
^^A.W. Hurd, "Present Inadequacies and Suggested Remedies
in the Teaching of High School Science," School, Science and
Mathematics, XIYII (June, 1928), p. 638.
;
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21
A KSW ORIENTATION IN THE AI¥B OF SCIMCE INSTRUCTION
Hurd’s comments suggest a reason for the defect as
well as a criticism of it. Indeed, criticism cannot be long
separated from proposals for reform. Although many critics
have consistently attacked the conventional aims of high
school science education, they have been no less active in
emphasizing the need for newer ones which, in their opinions,
must be better adapted to the requirements of twentieth cen¬
tury society. The essential point of most of the persistent
attacks on the older aims is the charge that they had little
functional bearing on actual life. They had become out of
date, it was claimed, and their persistence reveals "evident
discrepancies between the best thought in education and current
37
practices in the teaching of science."
Accordingly, the Committee of Ten Report of 1893 did
not remain unchallenged for long. There were "dissatisfaction
38
and remonstrance from the various groups" in touch with high
school pupils. Awareness of "the fallacy of mental discipline
and the actualities of life"^^ caused criticism to grow in
volume.
An early significant pronouncement on this natter was
^'^N.S.S.S., 31st iearbook, p. ix.
^%orth Central Association, op. cit . , p. 9.
39Ibid
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2B
issued in 1918 as The Cardinal Principles of Secondary Edu ¬
cation by the National Education Association. In direct op¬
position to the Committee of Ten Report , this study put forth
direct life preparation as the keystone of all effective
teaching. Here the main aims of education v/ere itemized
under several functional categories: (a) health, (b) command
of fundamental processes, (c) worthy home membership, (d)
vocation, ie) citizenship, (f) worthy use of leisure time,
(g) ethical character. To prepare the pupil for immediate
and mundane aspects of living is the concern of the school.
Attention is abruptly turned from values implied in the mas¬
tery per ^ of a subject to values contingent upon using
knowledge for solving life’s problems.
The 1918 report was followed two years later by
another entitled Re-organization of Science in Secondary
Schools in which the same association attempted to set out
science’s peculiar values in this preparation for life.
Science could, it was here stated, make particular contri¬
bution to six of these ’life’ aims. These pertained to
health, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, use
41
of leisure, and ethical character.
These two reports represent a long step in removing
"^^R.S.S.E., 31st learbook, p. 18.
^^ Ibid . , p. 19.
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23
high school science from the influence of mental discipline
and college preparation. Iheir program was a significant
attempt to make the subject ”more functional and effective
42
in the every day life of students.” According to the
31st Yearbook:
The recognized achievement of the Commission has
been to shift emphasis in thinking concerning educa¬
tional problems from values assumed to be associated
with mastery of subjects to values which are more
directly associated with human relations.
Indeed the need for functional objectives in science
instruction appears to be a main principle in recent educa¬
tional literature. In this connection, a 1933 study states
that "attention is now being directed mainly to the con¬
struction of curricular units of a more directly functional
44
nat^ore.” Hunter in 19 34 asks this question, "The child
of today is brought up in an atmosphere of practical science,
and yet how many of us are explaining to him the problems
with which he comes in contact in his daily life?” and con¬
tinues by contending that "courses in science should first of
all interpret the environment of the pupils so that they may
best prepare themselves for a sane and healthy life in that
^^Progressive Education Association, op. cit *, p. 11.
31st Yearbook, p. 19.
^%orth Central Association, op. cit ., p. 4.
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24
environment In discussing a new physics course in
1933, the North Central Association Committee stated their
belief that "the subject material should bear upon his j^e
pupil^ necessities and his experiences in daily life *.
n46
A co-operative project carried on in seventeen
secondary schools under the supervision of the Bureau of
Educational Research of feachers College, Columbia Univer¬
sity held the view that "curricular materials and methods of
teaching consciously selected because of immediate signifi¬
cance to human living will better serve young people than
those in which such a significance, if present at all, is
47
incidental." Their aims in science teaching were clearly
set "to lead young people to a clearer understanding of
society, of the social function of science and of their
individual needs and interests.""^® Both the 31st and 46th
Yearbooks of the N.3.S.E. have approved the newer objectives.
In the 31st Yearbook we read: "This committee, then, recog¬
nizes the aim of science teaching to be contributory to the
4:5iiunter, op. cit *, p. 13.
^^North Central Association, op. cit . , p. 274.
^"^Bureau of Educational Research in Science, New
Directions in Science Teaching , p. 2.
^Q lbid ., p. 4.
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25
4Q
aim of education; viz., life enrichment.” The 46th Year¬
book, in considering the social values of science teaching
states the following:
It is becoming increasingly more important that
the science teacher seek out the social implications
of his materials of instruction and deal with them
in such a way that they give promise of having more
carry-over values to aid the pupil as he attempts
to adjust to the problems encountered in his daily
living.
INCREASING ACCEPTANCE OF NmCER IDEAS
For their adequate fulfillment the newer ideas re¬
quired two things: first, an acceptance of their validity
by educators, and second, a complete overhaul of the subject
matter and curriculum to guide and facilitate their implement¬
ation.
That the newer concepts were gaining acceptance is
noted in many places. Speaking of general science in the
decade preceding 1930, Hunter notes a ^noticeable, gradual
emphasis on material of civic or social value, indicating
that the philosophy of education for citizenship was the
keynote of the decade.Although physics and chemistry
up to 1933 have in his view ”gone placidly along reflecting
52
the college domination in content and method,” Hunter
^^N.S.S.E. , 31st Yearbook, p. 57.
^%.3.S.E., 46th learbook, p. 141.
<"1 52
^■^iiunter, op. cit . , p. 39. Ibid . , p. 150.
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26
concedes that '^even the raore static courses in chemistry and
physics are beginning to shov; signs of meeting life conditions
53
Of pupils more than college entrance requirements.^^
In comparing the results of two similar questionnaires
sent out to a great number of high school teachers in 1930
and in 1941, hunter and Spore found the overall picture quite
favourable to the newer objectives. These questionnaires
presented a long and varied list of objectives from which
teachers were requested to indicate their preferences. "In
1930 at the senior high school level the propaedeutic function
stood first on the list of science objectives given by science
54.
teachers .... In 1941 it stood as twenty-third on a list."
This difference in preference for one of the v/ell-intrenched
’traditional* objectives, Hunter and Spore ccnsider most
striking. They continue:
Evidently many of the state supported schools are
saying to the college and universities, ’you must
take our products as we prepare them for life for v/e
are not interested in training for college examina¬
tions as such.^^
And the 46th Tearbook in summarizing the trends to
1945 states in referring to biology, that "during the past
^^ Ibld ., p. 112.
iiunter and L. Spore, "Objectives of Science in
the Secondary Schools of the u.S.A.", School Science and
Mathematics aLIII (Oct., 1943J, p. 640.
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27
ten years, particularly, the trend has been tov/ard focusing
attention less on the organization of subject matter and more
on the results in the lives of the learners.For science
instruction in general, ’’The fact that so much attention is
being directed tavard education for effective adjustment
carries a significant implication for secondary school
57
science." It would appear that the traditional em_phasis
upon college preparation and upon ’facts for their ovm sake’
was lessening while a concept of science instruction with a
bearing upon the concerns of everyday life was gaining in¬
creasing favour.
^%.S.S.E. , 46th Yearbook, p. 184.
57
Ibid ., p. 141
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CHAPTER III
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE:
mKING THE science CURRICULUl! FUNCTIONAL
NATURE OF THE TASK
Although teachers of secondary science have become
increasingly sympathetic «to the need for transferring a
subject from a scholastic discipline or a formal college pre¬
requisite into a means of direct education for the activities
of life^’^j they have often lacked guidance in revising the
2
subject matter to this end.
Indeed, making the curriculum effectively life-
centred is no easy task. In contrast, the construction of
traditional courses was relatively clear-cut and direct.
Under the standards set up by the university the purpose of
instruction was clear and the methods of schieving it rela¬
tively precise. With the aid of a logically-organized text
the subject matter was covered nethodically and rigourously,
the prescribed number of experiments were performed, and the
student was examined to see if he had mastered the knowledge
and techniques set out.
^North Central Association, High School Curriculum Re ¬
organization , p. IE.
^ Ibld .. p. 11.
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29
As long as education could be conceived as con¬
sisting mainly in the training of the faculties, the
purpose of science instruction was clear. Science
information was organized in systematic and logical
fashion, and laboratory work was carried out with
meticulous detail in order to train the faculties
of observation, memory, reasoning and the like.3
Finally, formal examinations and laboratory tests could
indicate quite clearly hov/ effective the teaching of the
materials of the course had been.
Lacking these more or less definite criteria of tra¬
ditional science, the creators of functional courses, on the
other hand, had to find answers to many basic questions before
an adequate course could appear. The outcomes sought, the
organization of subject matter, the program of evaluation,
provision for specialist-minded students, and the like re¬
quired attention. It is one thing ”to assent to the need”
for a change in emphasis in science teaching, ”but another
thing to effect this.”^
Nevertheless, many attempts have been imde to lay
at least the broad foundation for a curriculum of functional
science. A general review of some of the more important of
these follows. The reader v/ill note that although the ap¬
proach may vary, the need for making science bear directly on
everyday living is the basic justification for each program.
^Progressive Education Association, Science in Q-eneral
Education , pp. 15-16.
%orth Central Association, op. cit ., p. 12.
30
REPORTS OF THE InIATIQI^AL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION
The 1918 and 1920 reports of the Committee on the
Re-organization of Secondary Education, in attempting a
wholesale revision of the aims of education, proposed many
changes in the science program. Some of the more note¬
worthy were: that science instruction be continuous and
progressive iiiroughout the entire school, that greater at¬
tention should be given to individual abilities, and that
a revision of the old-fashioned disciplinary functions of
5
science should be undertaken. Perhaps its greatest con¬
tribution was an attempt to make science instruction bear
more directly on the pupil’s life by outlining those areas
of everyday living where science instruction could be par¬
ticularly fruitful. These were: health, worthy home mem¬
bership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and
ethical character. To constitute these six areas as basic
objectives cf science instruction was a determined break
from traditional thinking with its stress on disciplinary
and preparatory values.^
The next step in such a program was clear. The edu¬
cator had to determine those specific facts, experiences, and
skills needed by high school pupils to live most effectively.
^National Society for the Study of Education, A Program
for Teaching Science , 31st Yearbook, pp. 18-19.
31
and then construct a curriculum that would best provide
them. Unless an item of subject matter made effective con¬
tribution to one or more of the six fields chosen as objec¬
tives it would be excluded. All parts of the curriculum must
”be submitted to the test of social and personal relevancy in
a modern democratic society.”
51st and 46th YEARBOOKS OF THE N.S.S.E .
The National Association for the Study of Education
is an important body whose pronouncements are considered
highly authoritative. The 31st and 46th Yearbooks of this
group, after evaluating previous and current trends in this
field, attempt to set forth a cocprehensive science program.
The 31st Yearbook, published in 1932, considers that
the basic aim of all education is to enable the individual
”to participate intelligently and with satisfaction in the
Q
experiences of living.” To this end of enriched living,
science instruction shares with all other types of instruc¬
tion the task of contributing as effectively as possible.
Indeed, science has a i^ecial contribution to make
because we live in a world so greatly altered by scientific
discoveries that a knowledge of their implications is needed
TJ
North Central Association, op. cit . , p. 11.
%.3.S.E., 31st Yearbook, p. 43.
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32
for an understanding of society itself, i'urthermore, seien-
tific attitudes wliicli should arise with the study of science
are themselves valuable in dealing with many of the problems
of everyday life. In short, both an understanding of the
environment and the ability to use the scientific method in
dealing with it can contribute to the goal of ’life enrich-
9
ment* by helping the student live more intelligently. They
are, therefore, valid objectives of science instruction.
This understanding of the environment can best be
achieved, in the Yearbook’s view, by presenting to the pupil
the most useful principles of science and by presenting them
so effectively that their nature and implications are
10
thoroughly grasped. Yor this purpose, all instruction,
even that of the highly specialized sciences, must be or¬
ganized around tliese generalizations.
From all the generalizations of science, which ones
must the educator choose for his purpose? A basis for select¬
ing the best ones must be established. The Yearbook’s cri¬
terion is this: Educators must carefully choose ’’the princi¬
ples and generalizations that ramify most widely into human
affairs.The reader will note the emphasis upon social
values, the need for ’functional’ science.
^ Ibia .. p. 43. . p. 44.
^^ Ibld .. p. 43.
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33
The school will contribute to life enrichment if
its activities are of the kinds from v/hich ideas may
be developed and if tiie ideas may in turn be associated
into principles and generalizations that are inter¬
woven into human experience.12
When the most useful principles have been selected
by this standard, they must be broken up into component ones,
and these in turn into still simpler ideas. In this way,
something suitable, even for the most elementary grades, can
be found. This is a vital task. The school must start in
the lavest grades and year by year build up ever-enlarging
understandings so that "each grade level shall present an
13
increasingly mature development of the objectives." In
this process of building up a generalization from simple
facts we follow the scientist as he has progressed along the
same path. Thus the pupil "is taken through the experiences
of a discoverer, and these experiences are clarified so that
he may come, in as large a measure as possible, to an
appreciation of the methods of thought and action used by a
scientific worker.
Indeed, this progressive enrichment of an idea lends
itself admirably to the grov/th of scientific attitudes which
the Yearbook defines as "those of respect for tested tmth
15
and the methods by which it is revealed" and considers
^^ Ibld ., p. 42
^ ^Ibld ., p. 47
^^ Ibld .. p. 44
^^ Ibid ., p. 27
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34
collectively a concomitant aim of science education. The
related skills which together constitute *the scientific
method’ can also become a valuable part of the student’s
thinking if care is taken to nourish them.^^ Since they are
useful tools in life adjustment, their acquisition is like¬
wise a valid outcome of science instruction.
This twofold purpose of science education is em¬
phasized in the following statement:
... The attainment of an objective means the
attainment of understanding, together with the
development of mental attitudes that may be
associated with understanding, and it means the
development of ability to use tec^iques and
methods of working and thinking.^'
The 46th Yearbook, entitled Science Education in
American Schools and coming fifteen years later than the
31st, reaffirms, in the main, the outlook of its predecessor.
It agrees with tbe concern for social and personal goals
because all the objectives of science teaching ’’are means
to the end of more effective adjustment.”"^ It views
favourably the two-fold general statement of the 31st, that
science iraterials must be organized for understanding around
worthwhile generalizations and that the acquiring of scienti¬
fic skills and attitudes should be a valid concomitant out-
^^ Ibid . , p. 50. ^*^ Ibid . , p. 41.
l^National Society for the Study of Education, Science
Education in American Schools , 46th yearbook, p. 150.
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35
come of mastering the subject matter.
The 46th Yearbook and its predecessor have itemized in
great detail several sets of specific component objectives
under the following headings:
A. (irowth in the functional understanding of facts.
B. Development of functional concepts.
C. Growth in functional understanding of principles.
D. Growth in basic instrumental skills .
D. Grov/th of skill in the use of elements of scienti¬
fic method.
F. Development of scientific attitudes.
G. Growth in development of appreciations.
H. Growth in the development of interests.^^
The word ”functional” which appears several times in
the above outline receives considerable emphasis throughout
the entire yearbook. "Science concepts and principles must
20
also be taught so that they will be functional." To ensure
this, "once concepts and principles have been meaningfully
developed, they should be used and used over and over again
21
...." Indeed, the same criterion applies likev^ise to the
remaining objectives. "Learning outcomes in science educa-
^^ Ibld ., pp. 23-29. ^° Ibid .. p. 26.
21lMd., p. 27.
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36
tion shall function in changed behaviour. We attack mere
verbalizations and ciechanical skills.”
This learbook stresses particularly the validity of
the more ”intangible" objectives of science teaching. Such
outcomes as ’’open-mindedness", "problem sensitivity", "sus¬
pended judgment" and the like, v/hich, though less concrete
than the ’information’ aspects of the program, are worthy
and indeed capable of attainment.
The development of competence in use of the
scientific method of problem-solving and the incul¬
cation of scientific attitudes transcend in import¬
ance other objectives in science instruction.^^
However, as worthy outcomes of science instruction
they cannot be taken for granted; they will not develop as
a natural concomitant of knowledge.
If these so-called ’intangibles’ are to be realized as
objectives, they must be sought as vigourously in the
classroom as is the functional understanding of facts,
principles and concepts.
To reach this end, the Yearbook gives considerable space to
appropriate methods.
REPORT OF P.E.A> COIMITTHH
The Progressive Education Association’s study entitled
Science in U-eneral Education published in 1938 is "another
SS ibid ., p. 26. ^^ Ibld .. p. 20.
p. 150.
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comprehensive statement of the purposes of science in general
education*” This report considers the needs of youth in a
democratic society as the realistic foundation of a modern
science program.'" To this end, the authors have set down
four basic areas of living under v/hich student needs may con¬
veniently be categorized. These areas are:
1. Personal living.
2. immediate personal-social relationships.
3. Social-civic relationships.
27
4. iiconomic relationships.
"They are intended to serve as convenient centers of
reference for identifying v/orthy interests and needs and for
o o
selecting and organizing appropriate learning experiences."
The study analyzes specific needs appropriate to each
aspect and attempts to relate science insti*uction to their
fulfillment. Indeed, this matter of determining valid stu¬
dent needs is vital. "Understandings will be most fruitfully
developed by students when, as has been pointed out, they are
built in response to needs, problems, inquiries of the stu¬
dent himself.
^^ Ibid ., p. 23.
^^Progressive Education Association, op. cit ., p. 444.
^'^ Ibld .. p. 27, ^^ Ibid .
29
Ibid . , p. 449.
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Yet, in the Committee’s vie?^, merely meeting these
needs may not be enough. They "should be met in such ways
as to contribute to the progressive reconstruction and re~
rzn
finement of the democratic way of life." In this fashion,
science instruction is not only related to life but to our
modern conception of a democratic one.
To organize a curriculum upon this proposed basis of
needs, the Committee, as did certain preceding studies,
resorts to the generalization of science:
The Committee has adopted the relatively simple
method of formulating the most important generaliza¬
tions in the field as material suggestive to the
science teacher in planning his program.
In suggesting sources of worthwhile generalizations
the report sets down several guiding principles. The science
teacher is urged to choose interpretative generalizations be¬
cause these "apply the results of science to the elucidation
32
of problems of wide and rather common human concern." He is
cautioned to make certain that the degree of comprehension of
each generalization be suited to the purpose of his instruc¬
tion "The most comprehensive generalizations would be the
result of the reconstruction of experiences over a period of
years.” Finally, he must evaluate all generalizations
carefully "to see whether they do actually have promise of
^^ Ibid ., p. 444. ^^ Ibid ., pp. 449-50.
52 lbld .. p. 451. ^^ Ibid .. p. 452.
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39
meeting real student needs
So far, this hook has indicated that student needs
should be the basis for choosing science materials and that
these materials, if formulated as important generalizations,
give the best chance of effective learning. Yet there is
still the matter of specific teaching methods. ”... it is
important to notice that this content can rarely be separated
from teaching methods.The science teacher must take
pains to organize his learning experiences carefully.
The science teacher must keep in mind not only the
potential science understandings which may grow out
of a given learning experience, but also the need
for organizing learning so as to achieve the habits,
attitudes, specific abilities and skills important
in realizing the educational values of a democratic
society.
Although the report suggests a variety of suitable
learning experiences, it warns that they may be ineffective:
...If they are not set in an education frame¬
work that will give every adolescent at his own
level repeated opportunity to think reflectively,
to act on the basis of his o\m tentative judg¬
ments, to behave in ways that he realizes are
socially sensitive, eo6perative, tolerant, and
all the rest.^"^
. p. 450.
36ihid. 2'^Ibid.
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L.
CHAPTER IV
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATHRE:
FACTORS IN A MODERN SCIENCE PROGRAI.^
That the basis for a functional science program is a
course of subject matter carefully organized to facilitate
the aims of such a program is made clear in the representa¬
tive studies just reviewed. However, as there is more to
a building than the foundation, there is more to a science
program than its subject-matter organization. Each of the
previous studies, as well as many others in the field, gives
attention to various other factors whose importance in science
teaching cannot be neglected. If this study is to give a
clearer picture of the field under consideration, a sur¬
vey of opinion in these matters is essential.
Accordingly, this chapter attempts to snyopsize cur¬
rent viev/s on the following: the qualifications of teachers,
the equipping of science classrooms, the construction and use
of the textbook, the place of experimentation and demonstra¬
tion, and the scope and purposes of evaluation in science.
1. TEACHERS OF SCIENCE AND THEIR ^HALIFICATIONS
PERSONAL QNALITIES OF A GOOD TEACHER
That any successful science teacher must have desir-
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41
able personal qualities can be pretty well taken for granted•
Along with his colleagues in other subjects, he should have
intelligence, patience, energy, understanding of children,
good personality, ability to maintain discipline and to
co-operate.^ Hunter, after stressing leadership, enthusiasm
and personality as the "outstanding qualities of a great
2
teacher" admits that no college training can make these
qualities; they are part of personality. This study, there¬
fore, concerns itself with those qualifications which a
period of training might well be expected to develop.
milTING OF TEACHERS
Mastery of Subject Matter
All the sources chosen for this study placed consider¬
able stress upon direct subject-matter mastery as a major
basis of teaching competence. "The primary requisite for
teaching any course is a sound subject matter background for
that course," declares the 46th Yearbook and goes on to
deplore the number of teachers inadequately qualified in
this respect. Its predecessor, the 31st Yearbook, likewise
%.N. Holl, Teaching of Science in Elementary and
Secondary Schools , p. 197.
^G.W. Hunter, Science Teaching at Junior and Senior
High School Levels , p. 526.
^H.S.S.E., Science Hducation in American Schools ,
46th Yearbook, p. 58.
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42
has supported this view: »»It is impossible to teach any
subject well without an adequate background of subject-
matter training.
Professional draining
Hunter urges that the subject-matter background be
oriented toward high school teaching situations. He points
out a danger in traditional university science courses. All
college science courses are alike for those going into re¬
search, medicine, engineering or teaching, uonsequently,
teachers have to make adjustments to the pupil’s point of view.
Although this author is skeptical about the value of tradition¬
al subject matter courses in themselves, his objection does
not arise from a disbelief in the teacher’s need for adequate
knov/ledge. He is concerned with the lack of courses in science
organized from the teacher’s viewpoint at our college levels.
"...Subject matter courses given should provide special train¬
ing in the teaching of science as well as in the subject
matter itself."^
Hunter’s comments point to a basic concern in the
preparation of teachers -- the need for professional courses,
i.e. definite training for teaching. This matter is resolved
into three aspects;
%.S.^.E., A Program for Teaching Science ,
book, p. 333.
^Hunter, op. cit ., pp. 513-14. ^ Ibid .
31st Year-
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43
!• Teaching Techniques . Tlie first of tiiese concerns
mastery of teaching techniques or methods. "Other things
being equal, the more a teacher knows about the teaching
7
process tbe more effective his teaching should be." The value
of a knowledge of the principles of educational psychology
and the need for applying them in the classroom is stressed
in the 46th Yearbook:
On the side of instructional techniques, the pros¬
pective teacher of science needs an understanding of
human growth and of the learning processes, some
knowledge of acceptable procedures for measurement
and evaluation, some command of the principles of
educational guidance, a good deal of help in methods
of organizing and presenting the materials of in¬
struction, and as much pre-service experience under
competent supervision in actually conducting class¬
room and laboratory work as can be provided.®
This point of view with its insistence upon practical
preparation is generally supported by other writers. Holl,
notably, suggests a program of training which includes
general psycholog 3 ^ and professional courses and considerable
practice teaching.^ Hunter deplores the fact that rela¬
tively few teachers have had adequate teacher training
opportunities.^^ Webb as quoted by Hunter "advocates that
7
E.D. Heiss, E.S. Obourn and O.W. Hoffman, Modern
Science Teaching , p. 41.
^N.S.S.H., 46th Yearbook, p. 285.
^Noll, op* cit ., p. 211.
^^liunter, op. cit ., p. 518.
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44
at least forty per cent of the time of the undergraduate
course be spent in specific preparation for teaching.
2. Background in Science . The second aspect of
teacher training is not concerned with the techniques of
teaching but with the broad background that any competent
teacher may require. To what extent should a teacher be
liberally educated? To what extent should he specialize,
and to what extent should he have a grasp of the other branches
of science? Each of these questions is answered with varying
emphases.
The first of these questions, "To what extent should
a teacher be liberally educated?” receives a degree of atten-
tion in certain studies. The 31st Yearbook proposes to be¬
gin its suggested program of teacher training with a course
"built around those generalizations and principles of science
that relate most immediately to the needs and interests of
12
liberally educated people." The National Committee on
Science Teaching proposes a schedule in which electives such
13
as philosophy and sociology are well represented, and Curtis
and Eoll recommend some work in the social sciences as provid¬
ing a suitable ^liberal** background.^"^
^^ Ibld . , p. 514. ^%.S.S.E., 31st Yearbook, p. 340.
^^N.S.S.E., 46th learbook, p. 280.
^^ Ibid ., p. 279.
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45
The matter of degree of specialization is also de¬
serving of attention. That a teacher should know his subject
well is clearly implied in all studies and several opinions
have already been given on this matter in our review of
subject-matter mastery. The basic problem seems to be in
reconciling extreme specialization ViTith breadth of training
within the sciences themselves, and may to a degree be con¬
sidered apart from the broader implications of a ’liberal
education’. After noting the need for thoroughness, the
31st Yearbook continues:
Another convincing argument for breadth of train¬
ing is emphasized by the fact that biology, physics
and chemistry are so closely related, qualifications
for success in one major field are greatly streng¬
thened by training in related sciences.
Noll states that ’’the prospective teacher needs both"^^
specialization and breadth of training, and continues:
It appears then, that prospective science teachers
should have some training in all the natural sciences
commonly taught in the secondary schools and that some
training in a related field like mathematics is also
highly desirable.l'^
The Cooperative Committee on Science Teaching in
speaking of teachers in smaller high schools notes a particu¬
lar need for teachers who are broadly trained, yet suffic-
18
iently specialized to teach with authority.
15
N.S.S.iii., 31st Yearbook, p. 335.
op. Pit ., p. 208. , p. 198.
^^Cooperative Committee on Science Teaching, ”The Pre¬
paration of iii^-School Science Teachers,” School Science and
Mathematics, XLII (Oct., 1942;, p. 638.
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46
Indeed we may detect two considerations at work in tiiis
matter of specialization: the practical need for breadth of
training which enables a teacher Ho turn his hand^ to any
science if he must, and an idealistic need for breadth vi^hich
helps ensure a wider appreciation of the whole field of
science. In short then, the science teacher must *know his
stuff’ as the pupils would say, but not to the point of ex¬
cluding some knowledge of sciences other than tiB one he
expects to teach.
3. Appreciation of Aims of Science reaching . The
third aspect in the field of professional training relates to
the aims of science teaching and the teacher’s conception of
them. ‘The teacher should have an adequate notion of vrhat
science teaching is trying to do; this seems an abvious requis¬
ite. lhat the new emphasis in science teaching makes this
doubly true is recognized by the 46th iearbook:
The tendency is away from strictly subject-matter
bounded courses toward organization around functional
areas in the lives of the pupils. This trend is
decisive.... and it is important in relation to plan¬
ning for the education of science teachers.
Modern Science Teaching states, ”It makes for clarity in
science teaching when the teacher understands the major goals
20
of science teaching...!’ Hunter may have had something of
^^N.S.S.E., 46th Yearbook, p. 276
^^Keiss, Obourn and iioffman, op. cit . , p. 42.
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47
the same in mind in his criciticms, previously given, of
traditional university courses. He continues, "The univer¬
sities deal with the subject matter of the specialist^ the
courses of study deal with tiie subject matter of the child,
and proposes that college science courses taken by teachers
be arranged "from a unitary standpoint rather than that of
the logical science of the university," and that these
courses be taught by high school methods designed to "pro¬
duce specific habits, skills and attitudes”^^ — those
qualities which teachers themselves should seek to develop
in their own pupils. In short, he advocates professionalized
science courses designed for teachers and their work; no
longer should the prospective teacher be compelled to study
a science organized to train engineers or chemists.
The 46th Yearbook apparently thinks along the same
lines for its authors propose in their teacher-training pro¬
gram that "all the science courses suggested, including the
survey courses, should provide abundant opportunity to use
the scientific method in dealing with important issues and
24
problems.” Indeed, this yearbook declares that training
21
Hunter, op. cit ., p. 511.
p p S3
^^ Ibid ., p. 513. Ibid .
^%.S.S.E., 46th Yearbook, op. cit . , p. 286.
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48
programs have tended to be too narrov/. And, like Hunter, it
deplores the frequent practice of teachers taking the sane
science courses as future chemists and physicists and adding
units of psychology and education — all done "without much
or any planning of a program with teaching as an objective
25
of first importance."
In summarizing its comraents upon the education of
science teachers, this same work lists as two of the three
important areas in which science teachers should be competent
as; "(a) functional understanding subject matter ... and (c)
P ft
a social philosophy of science teaching."
These comments suggest that merely mastering subject
matter may not be enough for adequate training; the teacher
also must acquire definite ideas of what he is expected to
do w'ith it.
Length of Training
No discussion of teacher training Vi«:uld be complete
without some mention of length of the training period. As
this matter is receiving much attention in Canada at present,
the opinions of educational writers should prove of interest.
If the type of training mentioned in this discussion
is to be adequate, one could assume that the training period
must be fairly lengthy; the authors consulted speak directly
. p. 281. . p. 28V.
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49
or tacitly of a four or five year training period. Koll
P *7
intimates that even four years may be too short a time.
This author, at any rate, finds agreement among many ot iters
”on the requirement of a bachelor^s degree for all teachers
28
of science in secondary schools.The 46th Yearbook quotes
an American Association for the Advancement of Science report
which considers **a five- 3 ^ear program for the preparation of
29
of science teachers as a desirable future goal.”
SIMIARY
In summarizing the opinions gathered from many modern
studies, the student of educational trends would note the fol-
lov7ing major points as receiving substantial support:
1. The teacher of science must have appropriate personal
qualities.
2. He must know his subject matter well, yet have receiv¬
ed training that provides a balance between over¬
specialization in one branch of science and superfic¬
ial knowledge of many.
3. He must be trained to understand children, and to
best present his subject to them in the classroom.
^'^Noll, op. cit ., p. 208.
, p. 204.
29
N.S.S.H. , 46th Yearbook, p. 281.
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50
4. He must have some elements of* a liberal education
which acknov/ledges the important social implications
of science.
5. He must be aware of tiie aims of a functional science
program and of the means of implementing these aims.
To teach effectively one must know. But knowing
carries far more subtle implications than just knov/-
ing science. It means knowing something of the art
of teaching, something of the social and economic
implications of science; something of the nature of
child development and many other things.
2. TH3 SCIENCE-CLASSROOM AND LABORATORY EACILITIES
FUNCTION OF THE SCIENCE ROOM
Rooms in which science are taught are unusual because
**so much attention is given to the physical environment in
31
which effective teaching and learning can proceed.” A
functional science room, then, is not just another classroom,
but one requiring arrangement and equipment governed by the
peculiar aims of science instruction. In one representative
modern view, science rooms are places ”where students may re¬
ceive educational experiences which are to serve purposes of
32
problem solving and for forming generalizations.” It is
^^Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op. cit . , p. v.
31st Yearbook, p. 281.
^^ Ibld .. p. 291.
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51
inevitable then, that modern studies on science teaching are
concerned mth the efficient planning and equipping of science
rooms.
VALUE OF COA/lBINATION SCIENCE ROOI^
"In the past the place of science has demanded a
special type of room or rooms where experiments and laboratory
work are done and where different types of apparatus ... were
33
stored and used." Hunter also states that "we must have
proper laboratory facilitiesbut whether or not they
should be separate from the science classroom is now disputed.
hunter, himself, suggests that laboratories located in separate
35
rooms "do not lend themselves to modern teaching
Indeed, there is considerable opinion favouring a combined
laboratory and classroom: e.g.,
... A science room should be equipped for general
classroom activities, demonstration v/ork, and labor¬
atory work. Such a room will make it possible for
teachers and pupils to change quickly from one type
of activity to another and therehj provide^better co¬
ordination betv/een all science activities
Modern Science leaching also favours a combination
room because such a room "is a much more flexible place to
^^Hunter, op. cit ., p. 487.
^ ^Ibld .. p. 486. . p. 496.
^%.S.S.3., 46tb iiearbook, p. 240.
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52
carry on activities of a problem solving nature because it
37
enables the class work to be shifted at any time
The adaptability which such a room affords measures up
to one of the criteria demanded by the 31st Yearbook: ^^The
plan and design of a science room must provide elements of
flexibility*
FJRNISHIHQ THE SCIENCE ROOM
With science classrooms ^^beginning to assume the
appearance of general workrooms^^^^ which serve ”as workrooms,
study rooms, classrooms, laboratory rooms and lecture rooms”"^^
the flexibility required makes it "advisable to have science
rooms equipped with a type of furniture which will provide
for all types of classroom activities, demonstration work,
41
and laboratory work."
At any rate, whether laboratories are separate or not,
science rooms "should be planned to comfortably and efficient-
42
ly take care of the optimum class size for instruction."
They must be capable of handling all types of learning activ-
^"^Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op* cit *, p. 248.
^%*S.3.S. , 31st Yearbook, p* 293.
^^Hunter, op. cit . , p. 493. '^^ Ibid *
"^^Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op* cit . , p. 248.
^^ Ibid >, p. 249.
53
ities and the furnishing of the room should be directed to
this end.
Furniture should be sturdy and arranged to prevent
crowding. Experimentation requires good plumbing, gas out¬
lets, plenty of drawer and storage space, fume closets, etc.
Book cases and cabinets for supplementary reading materials
are desirable. A filing cabinet for storing display materials
is also helpful as is a display space for student projects.
43
A large bulletin board and blackboard are necessary.
INSTRUCTIONAL L14TERIALS
Besides an efficiently designed working space the
science teacher requires certain materials v/ith which to
carry on his instruction, particularly in relation to the
needs of experimentation and demonstrations.
Modern Science Teaching suggests that the materials
obtained should be governed by:
1. Needs for demonstration work.
2. Needs for laboratory work. ..
3. General laboratory needs, such as tools etc.
The effectiveness of instruction is also enhanced by the
45
following!
. pp. 249-252, , p. 271.
"^^.S.S.E. 46th Yearbook, pp. 240-2.
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54
As well as serving as valid tools in instruction, wall
charts, display posters and the like serve at least to give
a scientific atmosphere to the room,
A microscope and even a telescope are well-nigh
indispensable in some phases of science teaching. The opaque
projector is proving a valuable tool in instruction, and with
the ready supply of films and film strips now available,
movie and slide projectors are likev/ise proving their worth.
Science displays with objects, specimens and models
are proving valuable in many places. Indeed, any such
object that is pertinent to a phase of science being taught
should be included. An outstanding example of such devices
is the aquarium, a coirimon feature in our science rooms.
V/ith the current emphasis upon pupil reports and com¬
mittee work, some sort of library is necessary. In addition,
a collection of interesting books encourage v/ider reading of
science materials. It is likely, of course, that facilities
will vary greatly in this respect. A few supplementary texts,
pamphlets and a good encyclopedia can be readily obtained.
SUlvMARY
In summarizing the discussions of a number of studies
on this matter of classrooms and their facilities, the follo?/-
ing points have received a measure of agreement:
1. Science classrooms should be roomy and readily adapt-
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55
able to all kinds of valid instruction.
2. They should contain materials adequate for purposes
of experimentation and demonstration.
3. They should contain sufficient display and storage
space.
4. They should have charts, models and similar materials
5. They should contain adequate items of major equipment
such as a microscope, scales, projectors etc., and
provide facility for their use.
6. They should have a good supply of reference materials
v/ith convenient facilities for their display and
accessibility.
3. THE TEXTBOOK -- ITS STRUCTURE AND USE
IMPORTANCE OF THE TEXT
One has only to note the space given to question of
textbook construction, selection, and use in many studies on
science education to realize the important place the textbook
holds in educational thinking. ”It is true that in this
country ... the textbook has come to play a very important
part in secondary education,” says Iiunter yUio continues, ”In
science, although other ways of learning have been considered
of more value, tiie textbook has been and continues to be the
46
basic guide of both teachers and pupils.” A recent profes-
^^nunter, op. cit ., pp. 231-2.
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56
sional book written for science teachers considers that ^^the
textbook is, in the final analysis, the most important factor
in determining what is to be taught in any science.”^"^ And
Reudiger in 1932 has stated, "Textbooks are not inherently out
of harmony with v/holesome educational conceptions, when pro¬
perly used, and to follow a textbook is not necessarily evid-
48
ence of educational incapacity."
The intimation "v/hen properly used" suggests the pos¬
sibility of a degree of misuse. It may, then, be profitable
to consider just v;hat modern authorities consider by proper
use. ¥e must also be concerned with the matter of suitable
and unsuitable textbooks and wliat makes them so. Consequently
two questions require consideration: ylhat are the qualities
of a good textbook? liVTiat is the proper use teachers are to
make of it? As our modern goals in science teaching seem to
be orientated to ^’functional ends", the standards for textbook
selection and use may be likewise related.
BASIC QUALITIES OF A U-QQD TEXT
mechanical Qualities
The durability of the book represents a practical
consideration which most authors note without extensive
'^'^iieiss, Obourn and iioffman, op. cit . , p. 66.
'^^Eunter, op. cit ., p. 245.
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57
elaboration. Mechanical construction, including such things
as: size of print, clarity of illustrations, quality of paper,
and attractiveness of format, serves to stimulate interest in
the contents, and for this reason receives mention in lists
of desirable qualities.
Subject-matter Treatment
The factual information in the book is, of course,
a primary consideration. That it should be accurate and up-
to-date is generally taken for granted. Accordingly, authors
pay more attention to tv;o related factors: the amount of con¬
tent and the organization of content.
1. Amount of Content . Hunter detects a trend to in¬
flated texts. ^’Encyclopaedic texts in science seem to be
much in vogue just now.”^^ The 46th Yearbook concurs with
this statement. ”It is probably time that every modern text¬
book of science contains more material than can be effectively
tau^t to any class within the time and with the facilities
available.'^
Hunter’s comment upon this trend and its results
is pertinent. ”... Authors have attempted to meet the demands
of already overcrov/ded courses of study, and in this attempt
^^Hunter, op. c it . , p. E46.
^On.S.S.S.,
46th Yearbook, pp. 48-9.
J,
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58
have filled their texts with a surplus of factual mater-
ial
Hunter’s criticism is taken up by others. The amount
of material is often unwieldy and, cannot be effectively
52
taught in the allotted time. Attempting to do so "can
result only in the stressing of factual material to the neg-
lect of the important objectives of the course.” From the
vievi/point of functional science this is a serious fault.
Too much content and its result are thus deprecated as nul¬
lifying the aims of modern science teaching.
2. Organization of Content . The question of the
organization of material is likewise an important one. A
text written from a definite point of view and with material
organized in accordance with it is preferred. "No text in
54
science has a right to be simply a compendium of facts ....”
The subject matter in any science text must be organized to
encourage development towards those goals the w’^riter considers
important. In traditional texts, written to encourage mast¬
ery of the facts and the logical structure of science, we can
readily note the influence of the older aims of science
^^Hunter, op. cit . , p. 246.
®%.S.S.S., 46th Yearbook, pp. 48-49.
KrZ 54
Ibid . Hunter, op. cit ., p. 246.
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59
teaching. As many authors have criticized these traditional
aims so do they criticize texts v/hich reflect them. In Hun¬
ter we read, ^Naturally so long as testing programs and par¬
ticularly college entrance requiraments demand facts just so
long will textbooks be written v;hich encourage this wrong
55
point of view.'^ In this regard, Noll is concerned with
lack of emphasis upon scientific concerns of every day
interest I
These are sacrificed to the inculcation of the
fundamental principles of science, the rock-ribbed
postulates that constitute the framework of the
subject and which the scientist holds to be the
really important things ..., such principles as
now presented are often of little interest or
value to the high school pupil ..... After all,
science instruction that does not function in the
lives of most persons is for them a Vi/asted effort.
Noll deals at length with this matter. In discussing
physios texts he states that one reason for failure of this
subject to interest pupils, is *’its slowness in follaving the
57
lead of the newer science subjects in textbook organization.”
Noll seems to favour the inclusion into physics courses of
more material of definite interest to high school students
58
for ”the amount of dead material is large.”
In biology he commends ”a functional treatment with
. p. 247. op. clt .. p. 146.
. p. 137. ^^ Ibld . . p. 139.
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60
increased emphasis upon the problems arising out of the re¬
lationships of living things and especially of man to the
59
environment.” Modern Science leaching also notes favour¬
ably the appearance of science texts organized about problems
which the pupils are encouraged to solve. ^ After analysing
a wide variety of printed material, Pruitt found 135 general¬
izations, any number of v/hioh could be used as a basis for a
vitalized high school chemistry course. This investigator
suggests that all high school science materials be organized
around the most significant of these generalizations. With
62
this point of view Noll seems to concur. The implications
of Pruitt’s proposal on textbook reorganization are obvious.
Hunter considers all texts as being written from
either the logical or the psychological point of view and
strongly favours the latter!
In the psychological organization there will
be no logical sequence of the various items studied
for they will be presented in the order in which the
child naturally uses them in attempting to solve any
new problem which is interesting to him. In the
logical method of organization we force the mind
to follow certain definite steps which result in
the memorization of principles or definitions which
have little or no application in the lives and
. p. 145.
®®Helss, Obourn, rioffman, op. cl t ., p. 123.
®%oll, op. Pit ., p. 133.
^^Ibid.
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61
63
thought of young people v;orking in science.
Johnson, writing in feachers College Hecord, considers
”a well-defined educational viewpoint in accordance with
64
accepted educational aims^^ as one of five basic criteria
for selecting a text.
Miscellaneous Considerations
There are other, perhaps minor, features that a good
text should possess besides those just discussed.
1. Style of Writing . Interest in scientific matter
can be encouraged by an author who presents the material
compellingly. One has only to note the wide appeal of many
books on popular science to realize the truth of this. If
the materials can be written engagingly v/ithout sacrificing
anything to superficiality, the cause of science teaching
has gained, hunter supports this view: ”Any texts in science
written for the age levels of the junior or senior high school
have no reason for existence if they are dull or uninterest-
65
ingly written ....^^ So does Modern Science Teaching which
considers ”the appeal for pupils of the author ^s style*’^^
as one of the factors in textbook selection.
^^hunter, op. cit *, p. 249.
S ^Ibld .. p. 252. ^^ Ibid .. p. 246.
^^Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op. cit . , p. 66.
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62
2. Aids to Learning . Learning devices rnay do much to
enhance the value of a text and most authors comiaend their
inclusion. I'hese devices involve illustrations, graphs,
diagrams clarifying demonstrations and experiments, and
additional exercises and problems. In addition we may find
more difficult problems and supplementary subject matter
together v;ith reference lists as a stimulus to the more in¬
telligent and energetic pupils. Blany texts include a glossary
of scientific terms and several have summaries or outlines
containing the salient points of each chapter. This latter
practice, however, is deplored by Hunter who considers such
summaries as ^*easy means for the pupils to memorize the im-
ft 7 - *
portant facts” for examinations.
Vocabulary . Noll contends that ”there is clear
indication that the vocabulary burdens of textbooks are unnec¬
essarily large.The 31st Tearbook quotes a number of
studies which support this view, and notes a trend toward
simplification which ”should be fully encouraged by adminis-
“ 69
trators and teachers.”
^'^Hunter, op. cit . , p. 248.
^%oll, op. cit . , p. 145.
^^K.S.S.E., 31st Yearbook, pp. 78-9.
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63
USE OF THE TEXT
What do modern writers consider *^tiie very definite
70
place in the education process” ^ which the textbook posses¬
ses?
The 46th Yearbook values the use of a good text because
it provides ”a foundation of minimum essaitials common to all
the class..., also a definiteness of sequence and of contin¬
uity which a course based on miscellaneous reference mater-
71
ials rarely possesses.”
Hunter has put down a number of reasons why texts are
valuable:
Texts are followed because they organize materials,
because they give basic knowledges^ because they help
to illustrate syllabi or courses of study, because
they make for a certain amount of uniformity in school
work .... In addition nev/er texts supply means of
motivation, give the students and teachers helps to
classify and apply knowledge, and in better books,
they set up problematic situations for the pupil so
that he may be habituated in the methods of thinking
needed in problem solving as it applies to science.”^
Teachers, however, are cautioned against the exclusive
and slavish use of a single text:
When a single basal text is the only reference
source, there is, of course, the danger that the
pupils will come to think of the text as the only
source of material and will thus have a distorted
'^%Iunter, op. cit . , p. £33.
71
N.S.3.E., 46th xearbook, p.
'^^Hunter, op. cit . , p. 232.
48.
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64
conception of its true value
73
To overcome this danger, the 46th Yearbook proposes a
compromise method ”which seems likely to prove most satis-
74
factory”
It urges teachers:
•«« To select a basic textbook that provides a
good general outline of the course and primary text
materials which all the class may be expected to
study and then to supplement this foundational
material with a variety of materials from other
textbooks, periodicals, and reference works,
This use of the text as the focal point of the course
is viewed favourably elsewhere. Mediger, while noting
that the experienced teacher may ^become superior to any text-
76
book”, continues that he may still ”get the best results by
77
using a published book as the backbone of his course .”
Italics not in the original*!
Modern Science Teaching approves of this approach be¬
cause it encourages ^better learning habits on the part of
pupils.”*^®
"^^ileiss, Obourn and hoffman, op. ci t . , p. 122
46th Yearbook, p. 48.
'^^Ibid
’^^Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op. cit . , p. 123
65
4 . EXPERIMEIfrATION AND DEMONSTRATION
INTRODUCTION
Like the other important phases of science teaching,
laboratory work has been recently subjected to considerable
scrutiny. A great number of educational writers, in attempt¬
ing to put down a set of aims to which laboratory activities
should be directed, have critically reviewed the methods,
facilities and purposes associated with current laboratory¬
teaching methods. As vrell as pointing out shortcomings as
they saw them, they have suggested aims and techniques to
replace the ones they considered inadequate.
FUNCTION OF iJ^BQRATORY V/ORK
The 31st Yearbook in a comprehensive statement
declares that laboratory instruction should have the follow¬
ing goals
1. The development of simple laboratory techniques,
such as weighing, glass bending, microscope manip¬
ulation, etc.
2. Proving and establishing for the pupil himself
principles which have long since been well
established and generally accepted.
3. Using the laboratory as an instrument for object,
or ’thing* teaching ....
4. Using the laboratory for the purpose of developing
better understanding and interpretations of the
principles of science, as a means of better
illustration.
5. To produce training in the scientific method.
6. As a means of possible training in the experimental
/" ;;uiTAHTa*tOK«
.. A;
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66
solution of the pupil*s own problems.
7. The use of the laboratory as a workshop for the
study of science problems which arise in the
science class or in the life of the pupils.'^
This list of aims is quoted ?/ith approval by hunter®^
and by Koffman, Obourn and Heiss in their books on current
problems in science teaching.
In more general terms, many authors have stated their
views on the function of laboratory work. ”The laboratory”
states Hunter, "should be a place where teachers and pupils
op
together ask questions of nature." This emphasis upon
asking questions is maintained by others. "The laboratory
should be a place where a pupil may take a question or a
S3
hypothesis and test them under controlled conditions."
Science in General Education continues with, "Laboratory vrork
is valuable to the extent that it gives the student a chance
84
to exercise Judgment in the solution of problems." This
concern with solving problems under scientific conditions
suggests that in such activity, laboratory ?;ork receives
31st Yearbook, p. 270
^^Hunter, op. cit ., p. 171.
fll
Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op. cit . , pp. 118.
^^Kunter, op. cit . , p. 171.
®^Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op. clt . , p. 117.
^"^Progressive Education Association, Science in G-eneral
Education , p. 52.
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67
much of its Justification and that any other outcome may be
somewhat ancillary to this. ^’Problem-solving activities are
an integral part of science teaching and learning, and the
sciences laboratory is a natural place for pupils to engage
85
in these activities.”
CEITIGISI^ OP ACTUAL LABORATORY PRACTICE
Thus concerned v/ith problem-solving as the heart of
laboratory work, many writers attack much of our actual
laboratory practice as lacking in vitality and purpose.
Too often laboratory work degenerates into mere
busy work on the part of the pupils. Laboratory
directions are followed slavishly and wmthout thought
and "there is little evidence of controlled experiment¬
ation.®^
Noll contends that, ”In many cases, the pupil becomes
so involved in a mass of detail that he is completely befogged
87
when the laboratory period ends.” This criticism echoes
Eunter v\rho declares:
... Often problems are lost in a maze of mimeo¬
graphed directions which concerned the making of
certain definite measurements or the putting together
of certain chemical materials in order to obtain
definite reactions.88
In such cases, he continues, ^Because the relation to the
®®K.S.S.L., 46th Yearbook, p. 225.
®^Heiss, Ob our n and Eoffnian, op. cit . , p. 117.
88
®'^Noll, op. cit . , p. 48.
'Hunter, op. cit . , p. 173.
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68
larger problem was not given, all incentive was lost in such
OQ
work and the values became purely values of techniques.”
More specifically, nunter has indicated four objections to
much current laboratory practice:
1. Often ’unled’ by the teacher.
2. Written observational work often degenerates into
’busy vjork’ which leads nowhere.
3. Much copying by inferior students.
4. Work is often ’cooked’ to meet predetermined re¬
quirements.^^
MAKING LABORATORY V/QRK VITAL
To vitalize problem solving in laboratory work, to
make it more spontaneous and purposeful, would appear to be
the major task of the science teacher.
To this end, ’’pupils need to be given practice in
discovering problems, setting hypotheses, and in devising
controlled experiments as a basis for verifying or rejecting
proposed hypotheses.This is not a vain hope:
Experience had demonstrated that by -wise questioning
and suggestion the teacher can get students to state
the purpose of an experiment, to suggest the experi¬
mental factor, and to plan necessary controls to make
the results conelusive.
This source continues:’’Using such a co-operative scheme of
Q^ Ibid . ^^ Ibid ., p. 171.
^^Heiss, Obourn and ixoffman, op. cit . , pp. 167-8.
92
Ibid ., p. 169.
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69
planning experiments with the class will take much of the
*cook book* out of laboratory v/ork and revitalize it
Likewise concerned with training in scientific think¬
ing, Noll advocates a somewhat similar method. He suggests:
... That the teacher present a variety of problems
to the class; that the individual pupils choose chal¬
lenging ones; that the pupil and teacher together
formulate the problem and the methods for its solu-
tion without written or printed directions, and that
the initiative rest largely v/ith the pupil rather
than with the teacher.
Noll justifies this method with the belief **that the
problem method, if properly administered, provides stimulation
and motivation to the pupil
The 46th Yearbook sets dovm a four-point set of
criteria designed **to avoid the *cook book-recipe* type of
laboratory work**.^^ The follov/ing problem solving approaches
are suggested:
1. Use laboratory work to give the pupils practice
in raising and defining worthwhile problems
2. Conduct laboratory work in such a way that pupils
will learn the meaning and use of controls in
experimentation.
3. Use laboratory work to test hypotheses and inter¬
pret data.
4. Maintain a proper balance between student explor¬
ation and teacher guidance.^"
. pp. 169-170.
^%oll, op. cit . . p. 53. ^^ Ibld .
®%.S.S.S. 46tli learbook, p. 235.
^'^Ibid.
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70
Accordingly, the purposeful solving of problems may
serve to both enliven laboratory work and give practical
training in the scientific method, hut, if we are to heed
points six and seven in the list of goals quoted beforehand
from the 31st Yearbook, problem solving must do even more
than this.
In this regard, Science in General Education charges
science teachers with the task of helping ”the student see
how reflective thinking, as practised in the science labora-
QD
tory, is applicable to other areas of living.^* To this end,
laboratory activity directed toward the solving of problems
has value **in the attitudes and habits of reflective thinking
99
it encourages.**
The curriculum guide for Science 10 likewise emphasizes
this need; it is not enough to know the scientific method;
students must also be trained to use it ”in new and meaningful
100
situations.** **This is one major objective of science educa-
101
tion.** Teachers are urged to nave it clearly before them.
Any laboratory program v/hose values do not extend beyond the
QQ
Progressive Sducation Association, op. cit ., p. 49.
, p. 317.
lOO^lberta Department of education, Curriculum Oulde
for Science 10 , p. 15.
^°^Ibid.
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71
schoolroom, can he considered functional only in the narrov;-
est sense.
smc^iARY
The Curriculum Guide, although failing to illustrate
specific techniques useful in vitalizing experimental work,
does provide a succinct statement regarding the place of
laboratory work in the Science 10 program. This statement
is an effective condensation of the list of objectives pre¬
sented before in this work and taken from the 31st Yearbook.
For this reason, it sums up comprehensively much of v/hat has
gone before in this chapter to form a worthwhile declaration
of the laboratory’s function in a modern science course.
Laboratory work must be vital and purposeful. It has
the best chance of being so men used to solve pertinent pro¬
blems. In this process laboratory techniques can be learned,
ideas and concepts clarified, the scientific method revealed
and extended to the lives of the pupils. With a coupetent
teacher in charge — one who steadily and vigourously directs
his work to these ends —■ these purposes ’’above and beyond
102
the activity itself" can be effectively attained.
102
Ibid ., p. 15.
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72
THE naivIQITSTRATION AND Tlia IKDIYIDUAL LABORATORY L^THQD
Much discussion has taken place regarding the relative
merits of each of these methods. The demonstration, with its
saving of time and expense, had lead many teachers to viev/
this method with considerable favour. ”Because it is time
saving and because it is the least expensive method of util¬
izing laboratory activities, it is being more widely used in
103
science teaching than ever before.” It has, in addition,
an element of expediency. "Employed in conjunction v/ith the
lecture it may very well become a most efficient method for
104
covering a given section of content in a limited time."
It has other claims to recognition. It is an ideal
method of * thing’ or ’object’ instruction reinforced by teacher
explanation. It can prove very effective ”as a device for
developing understandings in the pupil for facts, concepts
105
and principles ...." furthermore, while using the demon¬
stration method, ’’the teacher is in control of the situation
and can thus see to it that the pupil makes all the essential
observations.
The 46th Yearbook urges use of the problem-solving
^^%.S.S.E., 46th Yearbook, p. 236.
10%-ieiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op. cit ., p. 116.
. p. 116.
Ibid ., p. 117.
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73
approach in demonstrations as in all laboratory v^/ork to the
end that "not only will the pupils learn facts and principles
of science, but they will also develop an understanding of
107
how a scientist works and thinks." 'i‘his Yearbook mentions
specifically four ways in which the problem-solving approach
may be implemented in demonstration work. Ihese are:
1. Demonstrations may be used to raise and define
worthwhile problems.
2. Demonstrations may be used in collecting data and
developing skill in interpretation of data.
3. Demonstrations may be used to test out pupils*
hypotheses.
4. Demonstrations may be used to illustrate the
applications of principles.^^Q
Yet, despite the great value of the demonstration method,
its alternative, the individual laboratory method, has a worth¬
while place in a modern science program, ‘ihe demonstration
method, for example, is not so readily adaptable to the
development of laboratory manipulative skills. Horton, who
investigated this matter, indicates that "where laboratory
techniques are concerned individual laboratory work is
109
essential." And Curtis, as quoted in the 31st Yearbook,
agrees: "... It is difficult to believe that he |the pupi^
will acquire any considerable degree of manipulatory dexter¬
ity and skill except through the individual laboratory
, 46th Yearbook, p. 238.
109
108 Ibid ., pp. 237-8. Hunter, op. cit ., p. 184.
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74
method.
• As V/ebb*s studies have shown, the individual method
may be superior in the development of resourcefulness pre¬
sumably because the student is to a great extent working on
his ovm.^^^ finally, on the matter of remembering what has
been done, Van norne’s investigation tended to show "that
although the d^onstration is better for immediate retention,
112
the laboratory is better for permanent retention."
The question of absolute superiority of either Biethod
may, thus, prove impossible to answer. After considering
the research on this matter, nunter writes, "One end result
of these researches is to show us that individual laboratory
113
v/ork and demonstration each have a place ...." After
surveying studies on this matter, Struitt and Englehart con¬
cluded, "No method can be considered to be best in every case.
Objectives of teaching, nature of pupils, and facilities of
the school, will largely determine which method should be
used."^^"^ The 31st Yearbook acknowledges that "each method
offers training in certain knowledges, skills and habits not
115
Offered by the other." In particular, it stresses the need
31st iearbook, p. 100.
^^%unter, op. cit . , p. 184.
^^^ Ibid . ^^^ Ibid .
^^^Heiss, Obourn and noffman, op. cit . , p. 162.
31st iearbook, p. 106.
iO. . Ji . ,:,3 j.:"; :.
^ j0 '* , j ^ y. ., j
75
for demonstrations where economy and safety are involved (in
the case of dangerous or expensive experiments} or v/here
expediency is a concern (in the case of involved and difficult
experiments}; the value of individual work for acquiring
techniques, and the opportunities provided by time-saving
demonstration to engage in projects, reading exercises, etc.^^^
Perhaps the most fitting judgment comes from Modern
Science Teaching : ^^It is likely, however, that science
teachers will continue to find both laboratory v/ork and
117
demonstrations necessary for good teaching,”
5. EVALUATION IK SCIENCE
SCOPS OF NVALUATIQN
”Like teaching, evaluation must begin with a considera-
llfl
tion of the outcomes to be sought.” If these outcomes
emphasize mastery of facts, then we can assume that testing
devices will concentrate upon this aspect of teaching. Like¬
wise, if other outcomes besides mastery of facts are sought
in science teaching, the testing devices should attempt to
evaluate them as w^ell. This observation is ?>rell borne out in
^^"^Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, on. cit ., p. 163.
46th Yearbook, p. 251.
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,N‘XI
76
the follov;ing statement:
Any attempt ... to evaluate without regard for
the purposes, content and methods of teaching —
any such attempt is artificial, and the conseq.uences
are almost certainly misleading.
LmiTATIQN OF FACTUAL TESTING
As authors have criticized the emphasis upon facts in
our science courses so do they attack testing programs v/hich
select knov/ledge of facts alone for appraisal.
In addition to the mere knowledge of facts gained
from the study of science, a large number of other
outcomes are usually claimed for it, that constitute
a fruitful field for research in testing.
In short, if other aims of science have vailditjr — and
raodem writers claim they do — then they too, must be
appraised. Hunter*s comment is pertinent:
Most of the testing programs measure the
acquisition of facts and for such purposes the
tests are valid. But is this acquisition of
Imowledge the chief end cf science teaching?^^!
If this is not so, continues Hunter, ”our testing
program is not valid, for there has been little or no emphasis
on testing for power. Should not our entire concept of a
122
testing program be changed?”
op. p. 154.
^^%unter, op. cit . , p. 412.
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77
FUNCTION OF EVALUATIQK PI A MODEM SCIENCE PROGRAM
It seems logical indeed, that demands to change our
testing program should be made concomitantly v/ith demands for
newer emphasis in the objectives of science teaching. Accord¬
ingly, Modern Science Teaching sets forth the following as
the obligations of an effective, modern program of evaluation:
... first, to devise tests and measures that
will reveal not only the mastery of facts and
principles of a given area, but also a functional
understanding of the concepts and generalizations
involved; and, second, to devise tecliniques for
revealing grov/th in certain other outcomes such
as the elements of reflective thinking, attitudes,
creativeness^ personal interest, and social
sensitivity.
That this is a complex task the same book does not
deny. To appraise growth towards less specific goals ”is
a far more subtle and involved task than measuring the degree
to which a student has mastered the facts of biology or chemis
124
try.” ^ Yet, despite this difficulty the task has to be done
for ^evaluation must be comprehensive enough to include all
outcomes and not merely those outcomes in which learning is
more easily assessed (e.g., factual knov/ledge and mechanical
skills
123He iss, Oboum and lioffman, op. ci t . , p. 187.
, p. 187.
, 46th Yearbook, p. 251.
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An adequate testing program must include v/ithin its
scope all the outcomes of science instruction even the more
intangible ones. But has evaluation any values to offer
beyond this? An inspection of several studies of this matter
reveals that it has!
A further obligation of an adequate evalua¬
tion program, equally as important as the
appraisal of achievement, is that of detecting
as early as possible, the strengths and weaknesses
of students with res
goals of the course.
In this connection. Modern Science Teaching states that
testing may ^enable the teacher to judge the completeness
of learning and to be in a better position to prescribe re-
127
medial work.
This diagnostic function-of testing is also noted
128
by Noll, who lists ‘‘diagnosis of weaknesses" as one of
the chief uses of tests as does mnter in his list of import¬
ant values of testing. The latter stresses the diagnostic
purpose as being the pupil‘s responsibility as well as the
teacher‘s. liie validity of tests as motivating devices is
also recognized here by the same author,as is the way in
126]ieiss, Obourn and Loffman, op. cit ., p. 188.
^^'^Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op. cit . , p. 189.
^^%oll, op. cit . , p. 174.
^^^Hunter, op. cit ., p. 418.
)eet to the objectives or
79
which tests in themselves can ”aid in a review of factual
130 131
material” and act as ”an aid in thinking,”
Furthermore, teachers as well as pupils may be eval¬
uated by a good testing program. Conscientious teachers can
learn from test results ”the efficiency of their own teach-
132
ing.” frequent testing program is a stimulus both to
133
teacher and pupils.”
fhus, the well-balanced evaluation program has several
functions. It provides the ’mark^ which school administration
renders necessary; it records mastery of science content and
appreciation of principles and concepts; it measures grovv^th
tov/ard the intangible outcomes of science instruction; it has
diagnostic value for pupil and teacher, acting as a stimulus
to both.
EVALUATION PROCEDURES
Any discussion on the general theme of evaluation
v;ould be inadequate if it failed to consider those devices
or procedures which authoritative writers consider valuable.
Different purposes will, of course, require different tech¬
niques .
^^O lbld .. p. 414.
1 3P
-hunter, op. cit ., p. 414.
^^^Heiss, Obourn and hoffman, op. cit . , p. 190.
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A, Paper-and-Pencil Tests .
There are two types of these.
1. Objective Tests . General forms of these are
classified as completion, true-or-false, multiple response,
matching answers, and so on. These all have the advantage
of being clear-cut, readily understood and easily marked.
Hunter considers the use of this type as a means of motivation
13A
as ^one of the latest valid uses of this device,” " In
addition, ”the multiple choice and matching types may be made
to require some generalizations.Generally speaking,
however, objective tests are used for testing facts and ”for
such purposes the tests are valid.
2. Essay Tests . This type has the advantage of
giving the pupil ^opportunity to organize and integrate his
137 138
knov/ledge.” It may ”test for thinking as well as facts.”
However, it also encourages cramming; it is difficult to mark
139
objectively and involves much drudgery for the teacher.
Paper and pencil tests have apparently been misused
*] rz /
iiunter, op. cit . , p. 418.
, p. 421. . p. 412.
^^'^Noll, op. clt .. p. 156.
^^®Eunter, op. cit ., p. 416.
139
Ibid.
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u.’:-; .-..,v. \^o V... vob c„, .ov.' ..obJt Ila.i.'. bns baqiXo
t
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81
so greatly in the past that many authors caution against
indiscriminate use of them. These tests have frequently con¬
stituted the entire evaluation program either on the assump¬
tion that learning facts was the primary outcome of science
teaching or that mastery of facts automatically indicated
growth in the other outcomes of science instruction. We have
already presented opinions that decry the first of these
beliefs; as for the latter, that ^Hhere is considerable
140
evidence to the contrary” is the comment of Science in
General Education . This book continues:
It is quite clear that written examinations, whether
of the essay type or of the objective or ’new* type
are not adequate for obtaining all the evidence on
the basis of which evaluation should be made.^'^^
The 46th Yearbook approves the addition of other devices ”for
are able
by the use of other procedures they
to extend considerably and profitably the scope of their
142
evaluation.”
A review of some of the suggested * other procedures
may, then, be profitable.
B. Supplementary Devices .
These are designed **to evaluate other outcomes, such
as aspects of thinking and desirable attitudes,” ^ and they
140px.o gressive Education Society, op. cit ., p. 395.
141 ‘ 1 4P
Ibid ., p. 394. IJ.S.S.E., 46th Yearbook, p. 252
^^^Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op. cit . , p. 187.
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82
reflect ”the possibilities of measuring such things as ability
144
to apply principles in new situations of a science nature,’^
Noll continues, "It has been shown that skills acquired in the
laboratory, ability to solve problems, attitudes of a scientif¬
ic worker, and skill in using the scientific method may be
145
measured also," as well as retention of facts.
The 46th Yearbook lists several of these methods all
of which enable the teachers "to extend considerably and
146
profitably the scope of their evaluation." This yearbook
considers the following valuable:
1. Hating scales and check lists.
2. Analysis of work products according to accept¬
able criteria (apparatus set-ups, notebooks,
student collections, committee reports, etc.)
3. Classroom questioning and discussion.
4. Observation of significant behaviour; either
(a) informal, as in day-to-day classroom or
laboratory activities, or
(b) systematic, as in situations specifically
planned to elicit known types of behaviour.
5. Conferences or interviews with individuals or
with small groups.147
This yearbook also presents a great variety of examples
of each t3rpe — examples which "are capable of adaptation to
any classroom or laboratory by the teacher V7ho is interested
in measuring growth of his pupils with respect to each of the
144t^o 11, op. cit . , p. 162. ^"^ ^Ibld .
146
h.S.S.H., 46th iearbook, p. 252.
. pp. 252-3.
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83
various objectives of science ins traction.
Modern Science Teaching follo^vs the lead of the 46th
Yearbook to the extent of presenting lists of nev;er teclmiq-
ues and illustrative examples. Ihis book, as.v;ell, elaborates
a great deal on the need for measuring subjective items as
ability to recognize and evaluate assumptions, to distinguish
facts from theory, to develop logical proof, etc. In each
case the book presents clear examples of appropriate devices.
Science in General Education presents a partial list
of procedures which it considers of value;
1. Anecdotal Records by teachers, parents and
students.
2. Records by trained observers.
3. Questionnaires.
4. Interviews.
5. Study of student creative products.
6. Students’ diaries of reading and other
activities.
Like the other studies in this matter, this book
presents extensive examples of those types which ’’have proved
... useful in measuring progress towards the ’non-information-
151
al’ objectives of science teaching ....”
All studies on evaluation seem to recognize, tacitly
^^8 lbid ., p. 271.
O’oourn and Hoffnian, on. cit ». pp. 195-221.
grassive jiiducation Society, op. cit .. p. 394.
^^^ Ibid ., p. 394.
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at least, that their lists of supplementary devices are in¬
complete and that much work has still to he done in this
matter. "Teachers, curriculum specialists, and specialists
in the study of adolescents should cohperate with test tech¬
nicians in devising examinations and other methods of
152
evaluation.
152
Ibid . , p. 39 5
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u i./l0C['‘'JO0 aiXXIOC.>SSXO.X^C ^ ■C?:-vi XIX
SD^x.^O.;''XOi.Xo bu■^ Ej. X Xia. alvsl) ai aiisxoxn
CHAPTER V
PHYSICAL SCIENCE — THE INTEGRATED COURSE
A. REVIEV^ QE THE LITERATURE
Background and Definition .
It has been felt by many that growth toward the newer
aims of science teaching can be encouraged by suitable organ¬
ization of the materials of instruction. This concern with
subject-matter re-organization has already been dealt with
in Chapter III. It is pertinent, however, to revie'w a
significant development in this field.
Certain attoupts, designed to make science ’^more
practical and functional in the lives of boys and girls'^^,
have involved a trend towards "generalized courses planned to
meet the more immediate science needs of the common users of
science." Noll detects a decreased emphasis upon "special-
3
ized science courses in the senior high school" accompanied
by efforts to extend "the general science point of viev/ to
4
the upper grades."
^E.D. Heiss, S.S. Oboum and C.W. Hoffman, Liodern
Science Teaching , p. 24.
National Society for the Study of Education, Science
Education in American Schools , 46th Yearbook, p. 139.
^Y.N. Noil, Teaching of Science in Elementary and
Secondary Schools , p. 118.
^Ibid ., p. 145.
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, jna a\j: 'io' aoviX aid* xii: lanoxXonxit Bnc laoiXoaiq
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lu a’::-, .-i ::o-v.,-^oo ^ Ip -IjQoh oXtilimax ■:>'xok; ' 9X1^ Xaeca
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a ,.. ' . s ' ■ 5?
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‘I vr:id-.. Oii: 'xrit \:d’ 9 iO(. 7 ii lonoid'Bi:^
• -•'‘- • « ;'.:ii. t :^Jd:Li ^I .'^ ^ x;x no 1 j a 9j * 5 Ift
- IC . jllo";
,.‘11 . . t yrc a 6 no Q 96
86
The many forms these attempts have taken are noted
by the 46th Yearbook in a reviev/ of generalized science
courses in the high school. In some cases, the newer course
is orientated around the theme of consumership, health and
safety, etc. In others, each branch of science is reviewed
in turn as in traditional general science. Most highly
favoured by this Yearbook, however, are those attempts
which, drawing upon two or more of the sciences, integrate
into one course worthwhile and relevant facts and ideas of
each.^
A fused or integrated course in physical science,
then, is one that selects its CBterials from tvjo or more of
the specialized sciences. In the view of those responsible
for the Alberta physical science coijrses, such a course
’’implies a reorganization of subject matter and concepts
dravm from the whole science field, rather than rejection of
the contents of the more familiar specialized science courses--
0
chemistry, physics and geology.”
Claims Made for G-eneralized Courses
The value of these general courses would appear to
lie in their attempt to make science more Afunctional in the
7
every day life of the student.” Modern Science Teaching
%.S.3.E. , 46th Yearbook, p. 192.
^Alberta Departm.ent of Education, Curriculum Guide for
Science 10 , p. 5.
, 46th Yearbook, p. 190.
*V ■ >'■■ ‘
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87
after reviewing many physical science courses concludes that
such a composite course "seems to he much more functional
o
than either of the other specialized physical sciences."
Indeed, it may be that when the technical requirecBnts of
specialized science are removed, there is more scope for
dealing with practical or social problems and for giving
attention to the more personal or intangible outcomes of
science teaching. In this regard, Modern Science Teaching
notes in some instances an "emphasis placed on training in
the abilities of problem-solving and in the development of
Q
desirable attitudes." Noll coimnends the opportunity such
courses give to encourage a broader point of view "in place
of that of the chemist, zoologist, or physicist.
The 46th Yearbook recognizes "the superior possibil¬
ities of a composite physical science over the separate
traditional chemistr 3 ^ and physics courses in contributing to
the aims of general education.The Curriculum Guide also
implies a concern with general education in stressing the
need "to ignore the artificial boundary between physics and
chemistry, for example, whenever related facts and principles
o
Hiess, Oboum and Hoffman, op. cit . , p. 69.
^ Ibid ., p. 24.
^%oll, op. cit . , p. 145.
, 46th Yearbook, p. 191.
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IP
may be drawn from both to develop a topic being studied,”
and justifies this procedure as being ”in keeping with the
contribution which science education may make to all
students.
Organizing and Selecting the Materials of Physical Science
Educators are still left with the problem of finding
the most effective method of integrating various science
materials into one coherent course. Ihe 31st Yearbook proposes
to organize them about the major principles of science.Koll
agrees: *’It seems likely that the plan of organizing science
content around major generalizations of science has the great-
15
est possibilities of success.” Further support for this
method comes from the 46th Yearbook: ”The content should be
planned so as to develop concepts and principles important
not only in physics and chemistry but also in other branches
of physical science, namely, geology, astronomy and meteor-
ology.” The Curriculum Guide for Science 10 likewise
views physical science as containing "elementary facts,
^^Alberta Department of Education, op. cit . , p. 6.
^^ Ibid .
^%oll, op. cit . , p. 119.
^^ Ibid ., p. 120.
^%.S.S.E., 46th Yearbook, p. 45.
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89
gathered from physics, chemistry, geology and meteorology,
1 7
and organized to develop important concepts.^’
respecting the selection of subject matter, the 46th
Yearbook which approves integration ”for the purpose of
helping young people gain competency in solving their pro-
18
blems of adjustment in the world of today,issues a
double warning* Firstly, the standard for selecting mater¬
ials is their ability to aid adjustment in *’the experiences
and felt needs of daily life.”^^ ”No subject matter can be
justified solely on the ground that it is ’good science* of
a traditional sort or because it can be *presented* in the
20
classroom with a minimum of effort and planning.** Secondly,
the course must not be made too easy* Sorae previous courses,
particularly;^ those which have omitted laboratory v/ork, have
21
been merely ”on the level of effortless entertainment.**
In short, physical science must not become a watered-
dovm *snap course*; if it is to fulfill its task, care and
skill are needed both in its construction and implementation.
This Yearbook does not minimize the difficulties of this
undertaking: "There are obviously grave difficulties in the
17
18
19
21
Alberta Department of Education,
N.S.S.E., 46th Yearbook, p* 192.
PO
Ibid * ^ Ibid*
op. cit . ,
p. 6.
Ibid ., p* 46.
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90
way of organizing a course in physical science which vi^ill
prove simple enough for ready comprehension by pupils of
limited abilities and still retain the unique intrinsic values
22
attainable within this area.” It is confident, however,
”that a course of this nature can be evolved which can achieve
its desired objectives.
Place of Physical Science in the School Science Pro.g;ram
Designed to the end that science instruction may be¬
come ^feore functional in the everyday life of the student”,
the physical science course has nevertheless raised doubts
over its suitability for students planning to enter college.
For those undertaking non-scientific university w^ork,
integrated science courses are considered of unquestioned
value. The Harvard Report of 1945 implies ”that the general¬
ized physical-science course can be just as valuable for the
college-bound student with nonscience interests as for those
high-school students for whom secondary education is terminal^
This assurance is strengthened by the "disposition of colleges
to recognize the physical-science course as a bona-fide
college-entrance unit for the nonscience major.
As a preparation for university specialization in
^^ Ibid >
^^ Ibid ., p. 190.
^^Ibid., p. 191.
E3
Ibid.
25
.25
Ibid . , p. 191.
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91
science, such courses in physical science are not in themselves
always considered wholly adequate, l/Vhile praising '’the move¬
ment toward the science education of the masses in the gener-
27
alized science courses," the 46th Yearbook cautions that
"adequate provision for early specialization of selected
individuals is also a ’must’." Modern Science Teaching
notes a tendency in some quarters:
... to believe that the courses in physics and
chemistry should be retained much in their present
form but offered only to those pupils irho plan to
go on in some field of science as a profession.
I'his would tiBn leave the course in physical science
to take care of the functional needs of the youngp
people not interested in specializing in science,
With this scheme the Iducation Policies Commission of the
National Education Association implies agreement.
There is indication, however, of a compromise. Tower
Hill School, Wilminton, Delaware, uses a plan in which the
fused physical science course is used as a basis for special-
- 31
ized grade XIi courses in physics and chemistry. The
tw’elfth year consists of tv/o equal sections — one of chem¬
istry and the other of physics. As prepa3?ation for this,
the fused course is taken in grade XI. This compromise scheme
^’^Ibid.. p. 140.
on
Heiss, Obourn and Hoffman, op. cit ., p. 69.
30
N.H.S.H., 46th Yearbook, p. 191.
^^Progressive Education Association, Science in General
Education , p. 477.
92
"prepares students for college entrance with the same general
background in science as would be obtained from one full
year*s work in physics and another in chemistry.
In Alberta we will notice the same practice of using
fused courses as a foundation for subsequent specialization
in the high schools.
Such programs are interesting as attempts to meet the
challenge of the 46th Yearbook: "If, however, physical science
is to realize its full potentialities, it must be made to
serve both as a ^college-preparatory^ and as a terminal
33
course.”
B. IMPLBmiTIKG PETSIGAL SCIENCE IN ALBERTA
Introduction
Science 10 does not represent the first attempt to
introduce generalized science into grade X. In 1944, a
composite course in science had been planned and placed in
grade X, only, however, to be v/ithdrav/n after its first year.
Despite this earlier venture, Science 10 majr be con¬
sidered as the first major step towards a realization of a
functional science program for two principal reasons. Firstly,
it was designed to replace entirely the traditional special-
32 Ibid .
33ij,3.s.e. , 46th Yearbook, p. 46.
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93
ized sciences of grade X, (chemistry 1 and physics 1). Second¬
ly, it was the initial step in a proposed, consistent revision
of the entire high-school science program.
Some insight into the construction and aims of the
generalized courses in science is obtained by reviewing the
stages of their development. As Science 10 is part of a
larger program, we have sketched, in general outline, the over¬
all picture without losing sight of Science 10 itself as a
major concern. I'he information used was taken from the official
minutes of both the x-iigh School Curriculum Committee and the
Sub-Committee on High School Science.
Implementation of Integrated Program in the Alberta
Curriculum
In November of 1947 a sub-committee of the High
School Curriculum Committee, set up for the purpose of
reviewing the aims and organization of secondary science,
was directed to prepare a plan for a sequence of units in
high-school science. This sub-coramittee arranged for discus¬
sions among teachers regarding the nature of any proposed
changes. In 1949, encouraged by "evidence of a more receptive
attitude toward integrated science courses in the high
school"^^ among many groups of Edmonton teachers, the sub¬
committee went on record as favouring:
^ %iinutes of Meetings of Sub-Committee on High School
Science , February 25, 1949.
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94
1. The principle of integrated courses in science as
best meeting the needs of most students in grades
X and XI.
2. The possibility in Grade XII of either continuing v;ith
a fused course, or of branching into the specialized
fields of physics, chemistry or biology.
3. The planning of courses to develop concepts and
principles important to all branches of science.
At this point, the sub-cornmittee anticipated future
difficulties. The major problems of organizing materials, and
of gaining teacher and public acceptance for the revised courses
were recognized. The important part which the basic text plays
in the success of any course vms stressed along with the vital
need for a text which incorporates the ideas of fused science.
Vifith these danger points in mind, the sub-committee
laid plans for the tentative organization of a ne?/ course.
By April of 1950, a proposed plan for the reorganiza¬
tion of all high-school science was ready. Composite courses
in physical science were proposed for grades X and XI, to
lead to either a third fused course in grade XII, or to the
specialized courses in physics and chemistry. Separate
courses in biology were proposed for grades X and XI as a
prerequisite to the grade XII composite course only.
Justification was found for these nevir physical science
courses in their purpose acquaint the student with the
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95
concepts and principles necessary to his understanding of the
35
world in which he lives.'’ They v/ere to stress the attitudes
and skills of science useful in daily living for meeting the
demands of intelligent citizenship.
At this point, a trial course, organized on the unit
plan was taking definite shape. The units had been tentative¬
ly named, and their outlines were under way. After com¬
pletion, this course was introduced into the grade A classes
of several schools on an experimental basis.
By February 1951, the sub-committee was also concern¬
ing itself with the construction of an integrated grade XI
course, as well as with the matter of implementing both the
grade X and XI courses officially. The securing of an ad¬
equate basic text, the preparation of a booklet on the aims
of generalized science, and the gaining of teacher support
were problems receiving attention.
V/hen the trial course for grade X came up for review
in October 1951, favourable response from several of the
trial schools was noted. A new unit, "The Nature of Matter",
was added as background for grade XII chemistry. The search
for a basic textbook ended with the selection of Physical
Sciences for Canadian High Schools v/hich v^as deemed suitable
after suggested revisions.
. April 1, 1950.
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96
By December of the same year, after provision had
been made for continued evaluation and revision, the trial
course v/as authorized for schools beginning in September of
1952. At this time, too, the proposed grade XI course v/as
outlined in rough for its trial.
The integrated course designed for grade ZII, having
received university opposition, has not been instituted.
Sui'Qmary
It is interesting to note the following;
1. The attempts to gain teacher opinion and approval
for any new course.
2. The concern with the basic textbook as an important
foundation for the successful teaching of a course.
3. The desire to create a functional course, i.e. one
related to the conceimis of citizenship.
4. The concern ?/ith important principles and concepts
as a focal point for the organization of materials.
G. SCIENCB 10 -- MATURE AND AIMS
Introduction
The Curriculum ^Tuide for Science 10 is the official
publication regarding the nature and aims of the course. In
addition, it acts as a handbook for teachers to the extent
of listing important concepts and understandings, suggesting
teaching procedures, giving directions regarding the scope
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97
of experimentation, of evaluation, and the use of audio¬
visual aids.
A close inspection of this booklet not only gives us
a clear picture of the organization and objectives of Science
10, but reveals as well the extent to which this course has
incorporated the philosophy of functional science set out
previously in a reviev^^ of the literature.
Objectives of Science 10 and Organization of Materials
1. Science 10, as course in physical science, "implies a
re-organization of subject matter and concepts drawn
from the whole science field." ^ This procedure is
justified because "in keeping with the contributions
which science education may make to all students,
this organization of subject matter is deemed most
suitable."
2. Science 10, as a functional course, proposes to link
the facts of science with the concerns of life in
a modern society. "The education of youth must provide
a basis, not only for understanding and attacking pro¬
blems within our society, but also for developing
some insight into the role of science in the lives of
38
young people."
^^Alberta Department of Education, op. cit ., p. 5.
^'^ Ibid « , p* 6. Ib id ., p. 5.
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98
3. To this end, the materials of Science 10 are
39
^organized to develop important concepts” from
various specialized sciences to form an integrated
course.
4. Science 10 considers facts important, but they must
be used to ^achieve all the objectives of science
40
education,” of which factual knowledge is only one.
"Science education must develop habits, attitudes and
41
understandings, over and above the facts of science.”
More specifically, experiences in science must help
the pupil:
a. To acquire useful facts and information concerning
the environment and to develop functional concepts
and an understanding of scientific principles.
b. To acquire an appreciation of the scientific, or
problem-solving method, and to develop an ability
to use it.
c. To acquire instrumental skills.
d. To develop desirable attitudes, interests and
appreciations.
The Teaching of Science 10
1. Science 10 consists of six units, each one dealing
■with a basic theme.
The units are:
(1) The Nature of Things.
^^ Ibid . , p. 6. ^^^ Ibid .. p. 5.
^^Ibid * "^^ Ibid ., pp. 6-7.
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„,.3.U>c Xo :u>iX^ci:x:i axoXao as oxs
3™oa OiiX 'I*/ 4'-’:3sXoexaqB ns ax,;..pos oX .m'
c.o^. :-■/:/£■ oO - bit ;/..iX’-o:;: xOoXoIge-~-:oluoo:q
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.: oX :;i ^ _0i OX.OS aXO.cxXaoo qoIsrsX- oX: ^ '
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99
(2) Ihe Earth
(3) Temperature and Heat.
(4) Weather.
(5) Eire and Euels.
(6) Power Trorn Combustion.
2. The materials of each unit have been selected to
contribute, when properly presented, to a major con¬
cept. As a guide to teachers, a great number of
specific procedures are suggested as a means of
developing a nuraber of related understands, whose co¬
ordination will result in several generalizations
basic to each major concept. "The unit is not complete
when the understandings have been achieved. It still
remains to draw from the understandings clear enun¬
ciations of the Generalizations, and in turn, the
43
central theme, or Major Concept."
A list containing understandings, generalizations, and
the major concept, is clearly presented for each unit.
3. Laboratory work is considered to have several functions.
Making the student familiar with materials and equipment,
and enabling him to gain skill in their use is one;
clarifying facts and principles is another. Special
emphasis, however, is placed upon the suitability of
. p. 12.
100
experimentation for developing problem-solving
abilities. Teachers are urged to give these abilities
special concern in their laboratory v^ork, and to en¬
courage their transfer to "new and meaningful situa-
44
tions." Thus, experimentation and demonstration
are directed "to achieve some purposes above and
45
beyond the activity itself."
4. Teachers are directed to give attention to the use of
clear and precise expression througii regularl^^ assigned
and corrected written work.
5. i^valuation in Science 10 has a broad scope. It should
act as a corrective to the teacher in the sense that
it indicates how effective his teaching has been.
For the pupil, it must appraise his groY/th in all dir¬
ections consistent with the objectives of the course.
Teachers are cautioned against testing for mastery of
facts alone. They must not neglect the "more diffi-
46
cult, but equally important" task of testing
"habits, skills, understandings of concepts and
47
principles, and attitudes." As a guide in this
activity, they are referred to neiss^ Modern Methods
and Materials for Teaching Science .
. p. 15.
iDid.
47
Ibid
46Ibid.
oox
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101
6* No specific directions regarding tlie use of the basic
textbook are given. A fairly extensive list of refer¬
ences is presented, however, of which the basic text
is considered primary. It is thus implied tliat
teachers will feel free to use one or more sources, as
the occasion demands.
7. Using audio-visual aids is considered a practice ^*of
48
considerable merit under favorable circumstances",
and teachers are urged to build up filmstrip librar¬
ies. An extensive list of suitable films and film¬
strips, available to teachers on loan is presented.
Place of Science 10 in Alberta High School Science Program
The physical science courses in grades X and XI are
deemed to have a two-fold function in that together they are
designed to provide the following:
1. A two-year science education of a type suited to
all students.
2. A basis upon which any student may undertake grade
XII science courses, and thereby satisfy university
entrance requireraents.
Such an arrangement is designed "to provide science
education suited to all, as well as to equip those vath special
50
ability to proceed v/ith more advanced science education.*^
^S lbld .. p. 16. . p. 6.
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;r.-j /)ri aOiioioc i:. .),;3.- .s ^r^o.. j.diJ S; aooTq o^ ■'CJlXiaB -•,
CHAPTER VI
THE QUEST lOm-.TAIRE AHD ITS RESULTS
PURPOSE OF TBE QuESTIOEiaiRE
As a primary purpose of this study required on evalu¬
ation of the classroom situation, a number of Science 10
teachers had to be questioned on numerous aspects of their
aims and procedures. To secure essential data, the writer
used the most expedient device available, the questionnaire.^
The questionnaire was designed to reveal both explicit
and implicit information. Hirst of all, it supplied directly
a great deal of factual data on a variety of matters. These
extended from such items as training and experience of the
teacher, or adequacy of classroom facilities to the teacher^s
use of the text, and his attitudes tov/ards the newer aims.
From these, a total picture can be readily obtained by mere
tabulation of replies. Consequently, the writer v/as able to
answer quite directly such questions as: What number or per
cent of teachers have adequate equipment? What number or per
cent of teachers stress vigorous testing? — and so on.
^Appendix A.
IV i.lLT'iAHO , ■■■.
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. ..a -- -:xoo;o;5xv aBaxlo axeiloaGu lo ln©o
xlteo; qA'
103
Although much can be learned in this way by totalling
raw facts, a broader appraisal of many factors may be obtained
by comparing or synthesizing pertinent data from related tables.
A broad view of evaluation, for example, could be secui’ed only
by using several tabulations bearing on individual aspects of
this complex factor. In situations like this, the question¬
naire’s second use was found.
The earlier chapters of this vrork reviewed current
opinion on many salient aspects of modern science teaching.
In considering the results of the questionnaire, the invest¬
igator strove wherever expedient to set forth teacher attitude
and procedure in the light of this opinion. At all times he
attempted to delve beneath superficial statistics without
going beyond ?/hat the results actually warranted.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE QXIISTIONNAIRE
For an adequate reviev; of the classroom situation, a
wide variety of questions must be answered. For this reason,
the questionnaire deals v/ith the teacher’s bacl^ground, the
school organization, the school’s equipment, the teacher’s
ideas of the purposes of science instruction, his methods
of teaching and evaluation, his treatment of experiments, and
his use and appraisal of the authorized text. In addition,
provision was made for frequent personal comments and suggest¬
ions.
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104
To reveal attitudes v/itiiout prying unduly, to indicate
a choice of answers without suggesting the appropriate one,
to be comprehensive yet not over-lengthy, to reduce involved
questions to succinct ones capable of short, direct answers —
these were difficulties which the v/riter attempted to overcome.
Before the final form of the questionnaire was deter¬
mined, the investigator drev/ up several tentative drafts; these
were sent out in turn to various Science 10 teachers, with a
request for constructive suggestions. Keeping these suggest¬
ions in mind, he drew up each time a revised and more realistic
version. In this progressive way, the final draft -was con¬
structed, and copies multigraphed for distribution.
DISTRIBUTION OF TEE QQESTIGKKAIBE
Through the co-operation of the Department of Education,
an alphabetical list of 2E0 Science 10 teachers had been
secured. These names, representing teachers from all parts
of the province and in all types of schools, provided a
convenient mailing list for the study. Oopies of the question¬
naire, each writh a covering letter, vvere then sent out to
each teacher as his name appeared on the list. There was no
conscious attempt to canvas either certain numbers of teachers
on specific levels of training and experience, or certain
numbers of schools of specific types, e.g. size, rural, urban.
etc.
V J.
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.')t^
*^-l‘ >
105
Of the 230 copies sent out (including the earlier
tentative drafts] ninety-seven v;ere returned. This represents
a return of 42 per cent. Many were only partially filled in,
but a great number were not only complete, and shov/ed as well
the teacher^s sincere concern v^ith the issues involved.
DISTRIBUTION OF iiBPLlES
Tables I, il, III and IV set forth the distributions
on the bases of: experience of teachers, training of teachers,
size of schools, and degree of specialization.
Experience of Teachers
TABLE I.—EXPERIENCE OF TEACHERS
Years of
Experience
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 or
more
Number of
Teachers
11
12
9
10
8
1
7
4
1
33
Per Gent
11
13
9
10
8
1
7
4
1
34
1. The largest single group (34 per cent] had 10 or more
years of experience.
2. The second-largest single group had 2 years of exper¬
ience.
3. Of the teachers answering, 11.5 per cent had only 1
year of experience, ?;hich was the one just concluded
when they answered the questionnaire.
Sixty-seven per cent had 4 years or more of experience.
4.
2
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d':-r
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to, (I
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noj
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■ - ro L*-:, . /V _ >.■; , noiivV
'••-0 I o t ..;o ov' aavot-.i>
106
5. ‘rhe average amount of experience for the v/hole group
was 7.76 years.
'fraining of Teachers
TABLE II.--TRAINING OF TEAGiiNRS BEYOND GRADE XII
Years of
Training
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Number of
Teachers
1
5
14
39
22
13
3
Per Cent
1
5
14
40
23
14
3
1. All teachers have grade XII or more.
2. The average number of years of training is 4.3.
3. The largest single group had 4 years of training.
4. The second largest single group had 5 years of
training.
5. Eighty per cent of all teachers had 4 years or more
of training.
Size of Schools
TABLE III.--mffiER OF TEACHERS IN SCHOOLS
OF VARIOUS SIZES
Number of
Rooms
In School
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
or
more
Number
of
Teachers
18
9
20
13
5
4
5
3
-.A.
12
Per Cent
19
10
21
14
5
4
5
3
4
13
v*
107
!• Fifty per cent of teachers represent high schools of
3 rooms and under.
2. The largest single group consists of teachers in
3-roomed high schools.
3. Twenty-five per cent of teachers represent fairly
large to large schools i.e., those of 7 rooms and more.
Specialization of Teachers
TABLE !¥.—DEGREE OF SPECIALIZATION IN SCIENCE
Degree
Number
of
Teachers
Per
Cent
Fully-Specialized
62
64
Semi-Specialized
13
13
Non-Science
22
23
Totals
97
100
Teachers v^rere classified for Table IV on the following
basis:-
A. A "fully-specialized” teacher was considered as one who
undertook professional training primarily (1) in tv/o
basic sciences, e.g. chemistry and physics; (2) or in
one science and mathematics; or (3) in one science ex¬
clusively, e.g. chemistry.
B. A "semi-specialized" teacher v/as considered as one who
concentrated (1) upon two subjects, one of which is
K
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,(l. i . -; V J
108
not a science; e.g. chemistry and philosophy; or (2)
upon mathematics alone; or (3) in a semi-scientific
field as industrial Arts.
This group includes, therefore, those vdio, while not
trained for science exclusively, have had continuous
scientific or related training at the university level.
C. A ”non-science^* teacher is one who undertook university
work in non-scientific fields e.g. history and French,
mathematics and English.
From Table lY we note that:
1. Seventy-seven per cent of teachers have at least
some continuous training in science at the univer¬
sity level.
2. Twenty-three per cent of teachers have little if
any training in science at the university level.
Summary of Distribution of Replies
On the four important matters of experience, training,
specialization, and size of school, the questionnaire replies
represent a wide diversity of conditions.
ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
TSAGHEHS^ QUALIFICATIONS
Chapter IV set dovm quite definitely the high standards
2
which modern educationists set for teachers of science.
^Ctiapter IV, Sub-Chapter on Teachers of Science and
Their ‘c^ualif ications , pp. 40-41.
OS.
o 'Ji'
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.02.Xi;xO:.iiOB”^::..„ ‘xocrneiicj^ ^
. . "<i.l.i lB il ’xi a; iX
109
It may be pertinent to review the questionnaire results
wherever they have practical bearing on the matter of teacher
preparation. The previous tables are used for this purpose.
Length of 'frainin^
It has been suggested that at least four years of
college preparation v;as needed for the proper training of a
teacher of science. An examination of Table II has revealed
that one-fifth of our group fail to meet this standard in
various degrees.
Specialization
Considering length of training by itself may be mis¬
leading because the training may be in non-scientific fields.
In this regard it was noted in Table I¥ 23 per cent of the
teachers had little if any background in science beyond high-
school level. I'urthermore, these teachers must lack training
in methods of teaching science as well.
Summary of reachers^ Q.ualifications
It appears that the need for teachers v/ith an adequate
subject-matter background for science teaching as insisted
4
upon in Chapter IT is not being met in a substantial number
of cases. Two circumstances bear on this situation: (Ij the
presence of teachers trained in non-scientific fields, and,
(2/ presence of teachers insufficiently trained in an^;" field.
^ Ibid ., p. 49. " Ibid ., p. 49.
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vfxp ni Dorxand vIw'naxol?::!acnX P’tOuDcaJ- to eomioa-iq ';k;
110
FACILITIES AVAILABLE mR SCIENCS Tl^ACHINa .
Adequate facilities represent one of the major factors
upon which the effectiveness of a science course depends. Al¬
though this factor alone does not guarantee efficient present¬
ation, lack of space and equipment could seriously hamper any
program, no Hotter hov/ skilful the teacher or hov/ enlightened
the aims.
Chapter IV in the body of the thesis and the question¬
naire have both been concerned with many items which collect¬
ively represent important means through which a course of
instruction is facilitated or hindered. Specifically they
are: type of room, laboratory facilities, library available,
major equipment, materials for experimentation and demonstra¬
tion, number of bulletin boards and v^all charts. Other re¬
lated factors which may affect the teaching situation were
also included in the questionnaire. These are: size of class,
and the presence of other pupils. All of these given above
are not of equal importance, and allowance for this fact should
be made in any appraisal of them.
The Science Room
In Chapter IV of this thesis the science room was set
5
apart from the ordinary type of classroom. This distinction
^ Ibid ., p. 50.
vilco"'' 'o;-® ". 'I'^izeDiXlu ..■■jd'aTrli.oei ai: ^
zo,
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-i: .V vj':a ariJ- r orals ■ooixi’iA boael
, <_ 'r.ioixroJ: 1 ayor- or'u n,i ijelj.'loiti; oaXo
j.'0':'u ix 'e::r.:.J‘ ‘ti. .....x. . ..Xierx.. lo ;jo. eas'.:c e#xia Xxo
.Xc. :ros-.: xi. w qo ■ ^;.) x;,.'uX^. • ^ ;X ^ jx.omo oil lex/'X ‘io yon 5xa
. ,11 ‘Id; Isl.: aiycr^ vi;a al sdB” oc
;,: JO’ ;£;^•)_:..qi ui. G...:^:
w-X a X; ; x'".\ oxxo Ij;-, rioxlv lo xl
'■' ■' -xl. . joxcia a,'o X. z.rinxlf'xo e;ij rxxxi lx a-a
iWininMOT
Ill
was justified because of the peculiar nature of a subject
which requires a physical environment to enhance gro?/th toward
its particular aims and values. For this reason, then, instruc¬
tion carried on in a room given over to science instruction
exclusively, and containing facilities suited to science learn¬
ing, was considered desirable.
Table V itemizes the answers to questions bearing
upon the nature of the science classroom and some of its
appurtenances•
TABLE V.—THE SCIENCE ROOM AND ITS FACILITIES
Question
Yes
Per
Cent
No
Per
Cent
1. Is there a special science room?
44
46
51
54
E. Can room be arranged for group W'ork?
62
65
34
35
3, Have you a good-sized bulletin board?
66
69
30
31
4. Have you any wall charts?
68
71
28
29
5. have you a film or slide projector?
90
92
7
8
6. Have you a microscope?
83
87
12
13
7. Have you a suitable science library?
72
77
22
23
8. Are other pupils present?
35
36
61
64
It would appear that in a small majority of cases,
science instruction is being carried on in ordinary classrooms.
This situation may, in great measure, reflect the large num¬
ber of small high schools represented in the questionnaire
■I’.'
•' ‘t
,:; '::j .'.: 'i:jl^;,;ooq 'lo ^^..-soeu 5^::qivB’q, ^
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bo'Xi^J^xGaco 'KEw
ji
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■' ^
la.:: joor:ja:>J.o po a'Ta;iB.n: e:iC noqn
■'i
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Vjj
a \
rroi: 0 a ajirp
;^;.:)o'X aaa^ioa laaot^aa a 0'ia;ict‘ 51 . >'
-a-O:.' *1^^! oa :ao.O'i fiBO
-c
iv^'aavl ■:J:o 0 ^ 1 .'q •,-a .-..)3 a if jq 8 va.^.
.a-;?^:;',;:o I:?:ev/ -jaa' jj'..a7 ava.... . .■
.■: 1 ob\ ■• _ aaiXd •.l..< :' U.ix e uo’. .
^ ^ „ . .■ xX .ia,: e '..’j'v. ■-va.:
■ II- 'll ..o^a::; 01 a aov avav; ,
. . ■ ■ ....;•:■ ali '- r ? 'o la ,. .
^ ... to xlI i L
Op : ;‘ i'..lvoi. . :
■ .L -‘aiici T ,• biftov/ XI
a gi .’.. . ::opPL>^J‘IP^:^l oa-'aJoi
X.- ■I," :M'"" a:i I XaaX :c ....iiii
112
results, v/liere iialf of the schools reporting were of three
rooms or less, V/hat attempts are being made to adapt these
ordinary classrooms to science rooms, and with what success
may make a worthwhile investigation in itself. At any rate,
these results indicate a situation v/here teachers may be v/ork-
ing under difficulties to improvise a proper setting for their
science instruction.
Library and reference facilities have been considered
in Chapter IV as valuable parts of the science room. The
23 per cent of teachers who report poor facilities in this res¬
pect, may be impeded if they ?/ish to encourage project Vvork
or extensive reading.
Approximately one-third of this group do not have
convenient physical facilities for group or related work. In
this respect at least their rooms lack the degree of flexibil-
7
ity required by Chapter lY for modern science teaching.
Bulletin beards and wall charts are two adjuncts which
serve not only as teaching aids, but as means for creating a
scientific atmosphere. Almost one-third of the schools report¬
ing are deficient in at least one of these.
Devices for shov/ing films or slides are not taken for
granted as valuable parts of our educational equipment. Our
^Ibid ., p. o4.
^ lb id * , p. b2 •
sit)oi,i 08 aii<t lo ®iariv; ^'Soiijas'X
oJ' 30 ^uL .^ael 1:0 axsoo'i
'V. ‘V ■ ‘
3-2.%.oo B rlii.il/ aJ xv; i^xis ,ax:soo'x sGii^-toil qxI B.'^ooiBeBlo ^'lersM^xo
\'-xa allxiwxU^xow b oxlam
-/X',,; aj Yc;: B’loit-: no 1700Jio /i 0 vtaoj:fcnl.
* 1 10:10" -io':; 'isfioiq n 3 b:^vo’%cvu 1 InoiVllb toban ^at
■ < ’^V ^ '.nai^ox^iXsHl eonal^.'s
,; * ■:o;-4>., -
onicrioo raac '$Ta- 0 ;a^i.cJAIxtj ■B-on'&X3'..s*i bim.-%‘iXi^zdLl
7)L '■'
oiL .'"ooi: Bon^siofe sroJ* to E?‘xx^i t/IAx^xflsv as VX lacfqsdD ni
^ :. ■ ?» * : . .<' *' ■.'
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: ' mm ^ ';»'■• ■/';■. ■ wm:: m •
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. ■ ', ■ ' ..«■■.
evXanOG'xa ‘xo
oxjfl ojii o'o cu/ot^ aXad" to vlaoBxxXxo'XqqA
:m " -
■ii- . fTov/ aid qooi^ ‘lot aoirtrIIxoBl iBoiaxxiq i^a^lmvaoD
-.rjjxia'i'i JDT 31) oxid iio.3l e^xoo': tledcf' ;teBaI cla 3‘odqae*x SiXid
.: 4 I JSl '
V -
.^oax.ooot 0‘)X3X:T0 ?xa3i/oxi 'iot. ¥I locrcadO bo'i.lupQi:
; . a. .. ' . ■ '
ffoluiw 0 i'B. cv.’d' ovia 8J'*i*o.'o Il3w jona BtoiXio ixxit'oiXxfE
& "* .
, T >
c ax:rxjfjo'lu ‘x..‘i ai.O');/ as ^Ix.-u . :.Xvia nn-urloxisd" aa vlao "d’o/x sv'xaa
A-" 'm - ■
‘ <il‘j ..JB to X)*:J;.oJ"i>no .ixa.'qaom;)o oitl^ixa.toe
. ‘iG onu uoool c% nl '^neiol'ieL> eie 301
•jot croioa: j ,;i •lO -/....Hi ;. ifXVv'OiIo 'xot aaoJ^vou.
'*-w .,-fi'. ‘/.t .,i^v,, ly; i/r;::iio -n/o 'lo aw*‘*iO'^ i;.-,C’X)L.Xfiv ob ; X) 9 :l'fifl'i 3
113
group of teachers is well equipped in this regard.
The presence of non-science pupils in the classroom
while science is being taught, is included in this section,
because it may have a direct bearing upon the effectiveness
of teaching. A large number of teachers are con$)elled to
concern themselves, at least indirectly, with other pupils
during the science period. This circumstance may often place
an added strain upon the teacher.
Laboratory Facilities
No one can deny hoiv vital laboratory work is in any
serious course in science. This investigation, therefore, is
concerned with both the type of space available for laboratory?-
activities and the adequacy of materials for experimenting
and demonstrating.
TABLE VI.--LOCATION OP LABORATORY PACILITIES
Location
Numiber of
Replie s
Per
Cent
As a special room
49
58
Definite part of classroom
19
22
Improvised
17
20
Totals
85
100
In 68 (or 80 per cent) of the cases recorded, there
is definite arrangement for laboratory space. In Chapter IV
. ■ ..y- oe.jqimvo 1/0.: ai: ■‘xq. q^so^t'!^
.-Q.',.- ■ -•.'j ■• ■ a''-'^'- ao 7 oio.,.-:ioi: ‘lo ^a.x9ao-x^^ 'ari'-J
.. ■ ■ ^
• ^v! T 'a'. i/IoiTX ..a.i: . a<7 al aa^foioa al.Qxv/
;. v:. a .. a7-*x. ; ■■■ ■ a c 'li m. '4' I- a ax^oacf
OC -j'la. auo . •.,- ;,a.x:iaaait to a.::.: ’■. a^. A Ao
- " ' * ' iX O . ; •'/ , v.i 0‘S,X : -i X C ,'■ i 'i . : ■' ' ' ''”-X ^■' i' ii'X
I; -a,,' j;i:o cLa,'.: Do^iaioa oni' g.ui
,noqx; nxa^ixl'a bebbB r:o
. ■-ASA.-aA.K aalaa lioa .. Y x Qrf^Ba:oc
•; -::x /:;■ aL _ ..a cl lav?/ :jcci'\rit*f)- lo: o a‘to oA
^ • •. •, a.,.,.. ,;:-a(:aa‘; /■ a:a.A - .D-t alas ai, eaaxoo aacl'isa
.)• ' ■ ‘lot - • tJ a ;: o^'-aqa lo /ava vAJ va; 0 '.' At iw bonzooooo
■• ;:.'a,aio.:. l/,,.q:70 a. al claret a. :, lo '^aa::.: ■■x.jla o.'u b.iO> bcI/IyUoo
' .. • ■ ■■ tfyxtznameb bon
'■'•:io*.A. ..../I.-,A-Aai. a:w. a:. .oiaAv
’>•:» noilaooa
.__ ______
a...'>'. a a.o,xOB.oz 0
«1 ' . .u_;‘i:.a'aIo t. . v;Yxa.. otiiAloJ
ale joa
t
)X‘i
' -1 —r
a. v'A^oa oA yc ! Ac rrl
.a>:iX •- - V r:a/io-;na'ix,.; o't ?a: '■ ‘. - b Ai:
114
of this v;ork many reasons favorable to a ^combination’ room
Q
were presented, and 22 per cent (Table VI) of our group appear
to have such an arrangement.
It is interesting to note that 20 per cent of report¬
ing schools have to improvise their laboratory facilities.
This may represent a discouraging situation for the teacher,
though if the class is extremely small, the hardship involved
may be largely theoretical.
Materials and Equipment for Laboratory Activities
Space in itself would be of little value to laboratory
work if materials and equipment are lacking. The questionnaire
asked the teachers to state conditions in his classroom in
this regard#
TABLE YII.—liAVE YOU ENOUGH MATERIAI^ AND EQUIPMENT TO
DEMONSTRATE AND EXPERIMENT FREQUENTLY AND
EFFECTIVELY?
Answer
Number of
Teachers
Per
Cent
Yes
74
79
No
20
21
Totals
.
94
100
Thus one-fifth of the teachers reporting consider
their equipment inadequate for frequent and effective labor-
^ Ibid *, p.
50
T:.. . . ' v oc l ai4V:i-ia9T -iiim if-iov/ ai/i^ lo
O’!* \i.J
■^: ' ■ “ •.
0.0 i'l0|/a ©vad-.c-t
-V \ ■ qe*i; 10 d'Hoq 'XI-''’ Oi.: «.X ^ nC00 ax :fl ' ^
. :.QX,'I liosi oiCu.'Sio&i 'ix.;! o o-vt avaii glooaoti ^ni ,,
. ■-■-.^iOe-^w olvT at;?iqea', vaia aiii'i'
■ ■' :^. ' ^ ■'%‘i
DO . lovix.!: 'O'X-' Dd^ : iia^ux ■ 'x ax? vaaalo" 1 1 xCiXfOild"
■ ^ ' ■^' ^ -: ■■ ' ■ A „.^
a -.;ol ;;■ • o>;^ 0 0 , 1 ^ .alaiTSC^BM
.,■-1
':3’ioO0l^^ : 0.^ 0l ©0 'bqQ
^-w ...0j,, oXB .Oit&qii-iO'-e p^a alBii:9>}'8x5 *11 :-v^ow
jIo l;x-^ 'U .B.itllxu. 0.00 e&B^z Oc xr.mxioaait exixf £59 >:b.0
31 ■ aixld*'
'“y^ ' . ^' *'xii ' . „ ««
/*. . ..-.,i_u;';.* J.:;,. k',t'u:.;:. v 5 Y aV;lS--.fIV maAS:'
c-;;i"--'" ::::.:,.-k ■j-i^.ajrcaca u;.../. aS.'i..M'rc;;iOi.sc
V\ ,
V a ' 'vvX-.VliS.
115
atory work.
Summary of facilities Available
In tiie above cases v/e have noticed that in almost
every instance there is a sizable minority of classrooms re¬
porting a deficiency. More specifically, these deficiencies
in per cent of total replies are listed below.
Lack of special science room
54
per
cent
Inadequate library
25
ri
Inadequate facilities for committee v/ork
35
tf
ti
Lack of bulletin boards
31
tf
tt
Lack of wall charts
29
tt
tf
Lack of projector
8
f1
tt
Lack of microscope
13
tf
ti
Improvised laboratory
20
ft
It
Inadequate laboratory materials
21
n
tf
Presence of non-science pupils
36
n
tt
Just hOYv” serious any one of these
or
any combination
these may be in any individual school
can
only be
definite
determined by a thorough appraisal of
conditions
in
that
school. A poor library, for example, may be compensated for
by excellent laboratory facilities or^ the lack of a project¬
or by a stimulating emphasis upon some other aspect of instruc¬
tion. \i[hat is more, the qualities of a resourceful teacher may
make up for many an inadequacy in space or equipment. Never-
.:zl‘XOW Y'lo/a;■
.: j. i. :^loi\^^ ".: , vll.^oi'j:o3v|a l'xo< .vru/o.loi'lef) sni;:l"20'^^
;^■::^■/MI:; nl -oo~i. J'o:! avor: v/V; ©Taas' nl '
I,;j 10 vj-1'xoK.^w ^ 3 r" rv'x6.:J evns^tarxi: vTiavs
?;__ ^
.v'oI:k: |>;>J'aii wi'Xt: aailqe- lo oHOo j
laoo'X eonolou laloeqe lo
wOcTd'i:j.a4)ioo qa.o etEirpebanZ
oiriBocl iai'w eJ'.Ii/cf lo >fusJ
; ILmr 'lo "iodx
w'.:ao ':^
U: f»v''t. ■ i:.
•n'
fl t!
V-'
’’ ot:
oiq 'io '■■obJ
aqGoao'roi:Y ‘lo iIobJ
Y'lo^fB'iocfsX l>^ai:vo‘XqiaI
II (I
IZ
:I ai'iaJ'Ba 'e'loXB'^^cfai- 0:^6!:?'o©f)BxtI
quq ooi2ei:ca»j-;o;j: \ q -
H•: : "u oiio Y:>a at/oiloa \/mi’^rVl'';
sm.
' ' l<iiO"q,itoo looaoc. [.'-Xi ;:7l bni Yr.c ni aaorl:^ lo
^' ■ ' ■ , /'I
J :i:. a.-.oj:^;. '.a DO 'ic ic??.’• •d'i-'p :fqj:.'0*]L0jl;j’ b vq l-ie/ri-iioifo.o yI
o< ‘0 O'! ’'o:''
ij 'a>‘.' ;il ':ooq
. loorloa
[ 0
lo 010cJ. or'c , '
DOiJ :,
-Di'-j. : . ^ .^.
J" 0 0 c a D i Oi. ..r.' f>ia: L-,
r.o 'D'
DDl 'CoiT
J'' . 1 © 0 a ,L' O B 0 'I B ‘10
o^lJ X
-^oyo
0 "Irpc '1. soBCfa
ni ^
116
the less, the deficiencies do indicate areas v/here the ^cutting
down’ of any science program may occur.
This ’cutting down’ may be most serious in the field
of laboratory work v;here, in each instance, one-fifth of the
teachers reported an improvised laboratory or a lack of labor¬
atory materials.
PURPOSES OF TEACHING SCIENCE
As much of the recent literature on the modern aims
of science teaching has placed a vigorous en^hasis upon the
intangible outcomes of instruction (Chapter ill), the attitudes
of any representative group of teachers upon this matter
should be of interest.
Content Ys. Intangibles
Teachers were asked to indicate their opinions regard¬
ing priority given to content in their teaching.
TABLE YIII. —IS liASTERY OF CONTENT THE FRim CONCERN
OF SCIENCE TEACHING?
Answer
Number
of
Replies
Per Cent
Yes
39
44
No
49
56
Totals
88
100
ol
Siicl' nos'xs o:^2o-.mi oh oolo~'ol: o I7eb ed'i'
.'^.;jooo x_^::i ooribioa yhb "ro
bl..x? 3i1j r:i auol'xo:^ jax:\ ocl vQix xE^rop pn.l:}:fuo' aixlT ^;W
r;;;r 'IQ .aoxiB^arri j oau ni , 3'r:l‘i3’.v x^o^B'scdsI ‘io.
-': : ;n^ ‘X-v- a v’xc-d-miouBl Dsaivo^x/;^:^'! ire i^jJ'-roqo'X
• c-Xi2i.-i©^3X'i
OiXi a :.‘XoI}3:. crfu .fio 33.';d-:'-:3«J xI cf-n^o^'X sriu ‘lo iiosm aA
> -■'■ ' ■ ■ ■
osjouj^It dbvbIc sbiI ^::ldoBOo opnojipa To
a3Xj;xiw>^'1: ay.x 'x^Xq-viO; ;ix'icl’Oixxuvtanx ‘lo aaxotxjx/o Q.rdJ:;^3nBTr,ii
aX:;.x iioqu. 3'isiIo;X;xX ^0 g; o ’.3 avx j£iux'aaO''xqa'i yhb ho
' 1 "w' - 'S:
.Xau^iaJ-ni lo sd bluoda
. -V . t.na;XnoO
-j'lx* 01 a::-j.L f:£'.:; .') b:Tp o hh, T ck boil-cp oa.avv pioyiosv'h
. lioi'J xx-i Ciii.aj'xioo .;c)'jloXiq 3111
.<>u:xO;Tviw.
.'. x;:;v/:::;o to v''i:Lj;a.i:. _,^--.iriY
I . ..... , ,. . .,. , .
i . i.Xv 3
10
OOX X ' .
pv:orip
■ rj ..
O'.
r
alp, lo‘
117
It would appear that in theory, at least, a majority
(56 per cent) do not give mastery of content, priority in
their teaching.
Table IX dealing with a related question presents a
majority of teachers actively concerned with the non-factual
products of their instruction. The results in Table IZ were
compiled from ansv/ers to a question which followed a list of
coimnon intangible outcomes.
TABLE IX.--DO YOU TEACH FOR IHTAHGIBLl OUTCOIIES
DELIBERATELY AHD DEFINITELY?
Answer
Number of
Replies
Per Cent
Yes
63
69
No
28
31
Totals
91
100
As the majority here is greater than in the preceding
question, it may be assumed that among the teachers v/ho stress
content primarily, there are many who regard 'Hhe intangibles^’
important enough to warrant active, if secondary, interest.
Reasons for Disregarding the Intangible Outcomes
Those teachers who declared that they do not teach
deliberately for the non-factual outcomes, represent about
one-third of the entire group. As their reasons are, there-
118
fore, worthy of attention, they have been itemized below. A
number of teachers marked two or more of the items.
fABLK X.--RBAS0hB FOE EOT TEACHING- DELIBERATELT FOR
INTANGIBLE CUTCOkiSS
Reason
Number of
Replies
(a)
Take up too much time for deliberate
effort.
9
(b)
Too nebulous for effective teaching
or evaluation
13
(c)
Intangibles are superfluous:
7
(d)
Will best develop as an adjunct to
effective factual teaching; therefore,
concentrate on content
25
(e)
Their growth is so slow that one year’s
grov/th is hardly noticeable
5
(f)
Any other reason?
1
Total
60
A little fev/er than one-half of the replies indicated
at least an indirect concern with the intangibles in their belief
that «they (the intangibles) will best develop as an adjunct to
effective factual teaching; therefore, concentrate upon under¬
standing of content*’. The remainder intimate a possible lack
of sympathy with their purpose of practicability.
Teaching and Evaluation
Those who taught deliberately for the intangibles,
were asked a series of three related questions. This series
i
..■V ritio. j rro.1'V'i'Ou'o'‘xj v< 'Zo\/ ,
i):.v: •. O 0*: . > ‘Xu u.X ■^;0, 'X;3Ci';^X:
U ---..i ^ ^ , ,'X ..,
xtb.a::.
Xrv’ ' ■' ':^
0'^ x-i'-B ‘xo'r 0 ij iiarif-f oob qi; exfe'.’
" . ■•''XO.'ilt)
: ...i ■ 0 7ij'-'liu'r arvljc^Xu oo'l'
“■:;i;o 'xo
3i.«:^rx'x':;c'; B ■■‘X:-' XuIo'J::bii3u .ixl
^ JX Jo7ur,uB uX ■ i^Q 1:.'} ■>'0i> uf'secf ’ IX.'.'V;
.;:*i:t>‘.:or., ■ ot^cu: I,xxXo:jX joo‘V.ru
■ . .
X ';: 9 : .9' ‘ 9 . ■ O 0. •■ 7 -X.. d 9 9. U 9
;u-,: O'.. . .-..xX ml::: ai o ••;/•.■ 7,.,Ox oXlT
oXox 0 ji::.’ 9 ,!. '/j.x'icxi ox r^xouO'.,
MiiBiMlMi '.'.OJOGSO OOX.Xo
■-. ooX '... ■. ..loXu-v::9 oow^.! olxjxl A
IXiiOv::.. :0:..:‘ ,'Ow9xjO Aooox...:..;. l l‘:'.n,pl 1.)
;l3V0t Ac.;: lA'., . x xi - iX' ox; Aox c— : A u.J‘
' '9 . •CuXoo^r.A : oAAonoA ImiJ oi^A Q7u.At)0'..'. x
:)13 -':^: lUJ. 'i'^. jv'i 6:A. .' , ooAx'f.o 'xo X'OIJ.Ii.C'oA3
- ■■ x;;.:X Oi-'Ov ’.r,; p " ‘'A'uo;"^ ,0 Ao
119
was designed to reveal the outcomes sought, the methods used
to achieve them, and, finally, the procedures used in evaluat¬
ing growth in their direction.
A. Outcomes Sought . An inspection of the tabulated
replies in Table XI reveals that in the first choices ^^pro¬
blem-solving ability (scientific method)” headed the list of
desired outcomes, followed by ”open-mindedness”. An "under¬
standing of the value of science” was third. The remaining
choices, namely "problem sensitivity”, "critical and suspended
judgment”, and "scientific interests”, are all lov/ as first
choices. If we consider the aggregate of the first three
choices, "critical and suspended judgment” occupies third place
replacing "understanding of value of science”. These results
are based on a three-fold choice, in order of importance.
TABLE XI. —INTANGIBLE OUTCOIvIES SOUGHT IN ORDER OF IM¬
PORTANCE
Choices
Totals
Ou'ccomes
1st.
End.
3rd.
(a)
Problem-solving ability
(scientific method)
19
12
10
41
(b)
Problem sensitivity
3
6
5
14
(c)
Open-mindedness
17
11
11
39
(d)
Understanding of value
of science
12
10
9
31
(e)
Scientific interests
4
7
10
21
(f)
Critical and suspended
judgment
4
14
14
32
(g)
Any other?
6
eb ■ i:
-J w
.. J: r0;; 'li b "C.' eii^ nl i'
!f' .'j ja\d'.. erJ' /::: .„Z eld.r^^ ni c-i.-;
i Lf, i ■, V - 0 .:■. A .. 'i / 1 i: i ,■ ■*. ak ,L Vi fjj V ,i. O’ j
■ .:l:J:.j u.'- ..•^■:J.i*u o^'d .v d:'j ;ji:
. " d ^./^: j-.i:^:t3a •.' ^Ido^Si'" /Io:n3X,i ^ j.oj’o'
w-v’A -.r:.d. ../.:.y 0\:r. . ■' ^ '
!v' wH-:::.': j bo 9o':'^/u:‘:.:. „ ''xebxo.oo o ‘XI
I-.: .'ry /y •i^i':: .'j :'-o,::oI)X'\ ■':':-;::o x.. iLOx^i'to'' ^at^oi' ^o
v..:.'ao'.: oo^Jb . ^'^aoIob o > lox' ‘ic r^ni'V.Xix. c.U:Ob/x;^‘' ox; I ..'‘C
. ' .. *■■ ' • & '
.-•Oi...j too: ;-■; '., D t-z.oto :ti; . t--x': ^ilo .oX:.'„:-a^‘;::vt a n6 I)OEi?cr . ■ :a
. ■.' ■ .. ^ :l-
-.^ ■ ...;:■■■ .:c;.|
^ X- ...tuTROl
aertoot
r \
01
•i
0
i:
ci
■-. • 4 'v ,i. 0 L ■” f".J.;. j ''‘la,
1 -■ f^Kt i) 1 'ill TO J: or; '
' V i J- i: ,„ ■:o:: ' loXdo'i-i
aOCI'r " oX '. ..
. ■'■ j
1
O ' . ■" ■ ■ ::. ' Ab 7 7 ,.( ;.rr.^.
O:o:: : -x-vu 'lo
v-X;-v7.. -rhiX oi: ‘.:X.i teioo
ootfo -... „ , ,: : I 'U.’ X "oO
0 >jjr
% .1. w *, .} o \ 1 !-■ *w
;-o
\:.i
120
Ilethods of Teachinf^ for intangibles . Table XII
shows that, of the methods used, three of the five choices
were almost equally favoured as first choice. These were
"trying to develop them through routine teaching", "organiz¬
ing the course to provide methods of discovering principles
and concepts", and, "relating facts to the outside world and
the students* place in it".
Also in field of first choices, the device "of adapt¬
ing experimental work to stress the scientific method" made a
lesser, yet creditable showing, while the "giving of projects
involving student research and thought" was well down on the
list.
TABLE XII.—METHODS OF TEACHING FOB INTANGIBLES
Choices
Method
1st.
2nd.
3rd.
Total
(a)
Using routine teaching
17
10
9
36
(b)
Stressing the scien¬
tific method in exper¬
imental work
11
12
9
32
(o)
Using thought-provok¬
ing projects
5
12
10
27
(d)
Discovering concepts
through methods using
research, critical
Judgment, etc.
15
7
9
31
(e)
Relating facts to out¬
side world
16
16
12
44
(f)
Any other?
4
■ .,.10 •'
osx
. .Uuxrut^v vTa-
t.Q
■ .:;:^':'-v 3vi': T:o -b^^:.' .Ai^ai; -to .iBd^ modi
1:.: .. .tr.. xono aB '^ilBup© taomla
-.■■ 'ot' . c"'-- Qt .Bv^vJO’o edt'^M
-**'*'" ^ ^' I' : ' '■■!,.■
b.- n.['to..v eu- '.jJ 8o‘0b 1 ^,iii,i'i»lea'^' , Mif.^ .
.■••ft. ;il BO'alq
(I'
-3 aye. - ■■•:; -k -.O'. etd .Btn.lodo £1^^ oi^Ik ■ :-y.
^ ■•■ -j. * -' ■' . ^’i'.
g:'9f^ '■ ■.'ir:>)-&;; oij r^>^»aoc ‘Miv sB.3-i!is 6^ i^'tf-csmiisijxs>-®a£j
\ % ' ’ -‘fi ’ k’’* slif' ':' ^,r<tt!0&B ®LiSei-lb9iQ i&x .isuaflj
.-‘^. -"* 'Si' /• ‘i ■ ''•!
He# g^cilTlomi
■ ■> .Jai.'i' 'M a,v!UK”i--i:t:x Ziat'jz
r -'■
! S.r4a
L .v-c’lJ...
bod^BU
Sii V
batfdo^i §nia'U i
L ‘ -■
H ■
01
OJ
V
pi'v X B w' ;i Binl
::uXa:’ rirlaO (o)
I -..JV x’xC.sr :.UX.- laiLBa
ijr^'i;' aXOB;^':y'iq '^al
oj qpo0.00 /, X ■:©Vc ;a iCi i r>
* • tXa, k^boid ijt .ix\.,:fo*irfi3‘
0 .HoXw-kD
I
’■d. '.
. "jnXJrJCeh (o)
Bliovr eblB
; 'I "’liJ'O (*i )
■ ■<
1 . 4 ;
121
If we consider the aggregate of the three choices,
in each case v/e find that "relating facts to outside v/orld"
is the most popular with the others receiving fairly substan¬
tial support. One must note as well, that experimental work
9
which is stressed in the Curriculum Guide as a most effect¬
ive means of encouraging problem-solving abilities is given
no exceptional preference here. As this intangible outcome
is one of those most highly valued by our group of teachers
(Table XI), it may be that the potentialities of laboratory
work in this regard are not being fully utilized.
G. Evaluation of Intangibles . The number and per
cent of teachers who indicated concern with deliberate evalu¬
ation of intangible outcomes are set dovm below:
TABLE XIII.—NUMBER OF TEACilERS EVALUATING INTANGIBLE
OUTCOMES
Number
Per Cent
Evaluating
74
76
Not indicated
23
24
Totals
97
100
^Alberta Department of Education, Curriculum Guide for
Science 10 , p. 15.
. o:i^ ‘lo acreae-xj^sB axicr leJDi'exiao aw II
ex-^c:.:r.,fc< qj E7om :^£[xo:aXe'i'’'' Ijrdl aw saaa cioaa ti:'
' ' w ’ ‘
-;.-d’ae,'e ''<,iiiB‘i j-iiivisss'i aie-IJo sSJ fi;Jxw laj^qo^ JeofC'erfj- 8;
ov; ^eJn.Si .’ifri.,s3 J's-riy- , j-I^v/’a/s o^ori jBiaa eaO .stioqai:? ieij
--■ ■j'sViij ii..,:v. fi ae'‘, •£,;& exi* r'l BsEaa'iJ’e ai JloBriv/'
■ . , ...%.V .'s..,«1, W
iXS',-.:. i,,c esxSilxoi- ■>ff.iyios--v.tUfiO’ia.'snl5si‘iJxoaxi@ Ic enasjRa- bv^
onooi- 'c ,3.r.fj.3/te:Jaj: ai'iij aA v'3%B*>>%oca'is't«q**XiBx:3i:Jqsors oS
aiaXoKfit lo ./,;oig ax;o, ^aaffi. &so^i^ -xo sko si
eei, ts« S’! a, (IX: eldw )?
,.. '-r^ V
’ I.. • . .?
•j .^..nled cran s*ir, sl;iu ni ^-'lowJ
' '^T’" . ■' ^
T^r'x x;xxib Tt-cfiiiiUiji aa'r
■■g,
:w^Iad iTwO',;.} xas ;;,'xa ail.;:-3fusel’ni: ‘ic iiplei''.
fj ■• ,.*. X.' lx .'. 1 la Hu ■
'■' ‘ '■ ■''* ■'' 'A V
;,, aL'..uO'irJO
X X XX XvXi i ^.
‘^.■
raj y„aX
■f a 0 r)i-uT'I
-i-
>;,-i
'45rr .t ersi>Xi:7v'.
A;a:;aoijbni
.•Jl
1
aXL,+oX
kill in III
122
It is interesting to note that the number who attempt
to evaluate intangible outcomes is larger than the number v/ho
teach for them deliberately.
The questionnaire also asked teachers to indicate a
preferential choice from a list of evaluating methods. Their
replies are tabulated in rable XIV.
TABLE XIV.-—I^IETHODS OF EVALUATING GROV/TH HT THE INTANG¬
IBLE OUTCOIiES
Choices
Method
1st.
2nd.
3rd.
Total
(a) Personal observation of
pupil^s day-to-day work
and attitude
35
16
8
59
(b) Use of rating scales
1
3
4
8
(c) Use of special thought
questions
18
16
8
42
(d) Observing pupil when
given responsibility
6
21
15
42
(e) By considering marks on
formal tests as indica¬
tive
3
3
14
20
(f) Any device of your own?
7
This table reveals that of the procedures listed
"personal observations of the pupil^s day-to-day v^ork and
attitude" was the most \?idely used. The related method of
"observing pupil v/hen given responsibility" received fair
support
Sli-
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i'lix
123
Summary of Purposes of ‘Teaching Science
An overall inspection of the above tables reveals the
following facts:
1. A small majority of teachers (56 per cent) do not con¬
sider mastery of content as the prime goal of science
teaching.
2. A larger number (69 per cent) teach deliberately for
intangible outcomes. ¥i/e must assume, therefore, that
many of those teachers stressing content are, neverthe¬
less, actively concerned ¥/ith encouraging growth to¬
ward intangible outcomes.
3. liany of the 31 per cent who do not teach deliberately
for intangibles, believe that they ¥/ill develop as an
automatic concomitant of good academic teaching. These
teachers, therefore, display at least an indirect con¬
cern with them.
4. The largest group, (76 per cent) evaluate growth
toward intangible values. This number presumably
includes those of group 3, attempting to evaluate what
they believe would develop without direct and con¬
scious teaching.
Those teachers v/ho consciously neglect the teaching
of intangibles appear to represent two opinions. One of these
believes ordinary good teaching will encourage their growth;
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124
the other seems somewhat critical of their value altogether.
Both are contrary to advice in the current literature. Here
the validity of the intangible values is forcibly set forth,
together with the w’arning, that they will not be attained
10
without deliberate teaching.
An educator who believes in the paramount importance
of non-factual values in a science course may be disheartened
by the large minority of our group who value mastery of con¬
tent more highly. Some reassurance may be offered, hov/ever,
by the many included in this number who concern themselves
enough with intangibles to teach for and evaluate them.
The sub-chapter on ^^Bvaluation in Science^^ of Chapter
IV lists many devices useful in evaluating non-factual out¬
comes.These include rating scales, appraisal of the re¬
sults of projects, evaluation of reports, questioning, con¬
ferences, and observation both systematic and informal.
Table XIV has revealed that the deliberate evaluation
of intangibles relies heavily upon teacher observation, though
”thought*^ questions are used fairly often. Very little use
was made of rating scales, a relatively formal device.
Most teachers, however, do use reports, experimental
work, projects and the like as supplements to formal tests
^^Chapter III, Making the Science Curriculum Functional ,
p. 36 •
^^Chapter IV, Sub-Chapter on Evaluation in Science ,
pp. 81-3.
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125
for the purpose of obtaining a student’s mark (Table XXVIII).
These activities could also represent valid means of apprais¬
ing the non-informative outcomes.
It is interesting to note that the results of formal
tests are used to a relatively small extent in the deliberate
evaluation of intangibles. This practice is in agreement ?dth
1 p
the advice given in the current literature.
THE AUTHORIZED TEXT AIID ITS USD
The chapter on ”The Textbook” in this work puts down
the opinions of various wTiters regarding the textbook’s
13
place in modern science education. Despite the many
criticisms of construction and mis-use, it was clear that the
text holds no mean position as a factor in science instruct¬
ion. For this reason, the regard in which the present Science
10 text is held by the teachers, and, equally important, the
ways in which it is used, are pertinent matters.
Use of the Text
The questionnaire listed three principal methods of
textbook use. These are listed below in Table ]CV, with the
number of teachers who indicated each method as being his o?/n.
^^ Ibid ., p. 76.
l^z
Chapter IV, Sub-Chapter on the Textbook ■— Its
Structure and use , pp. 54-63.
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126
TABLE XV.—HOW TEACHERS USE THE BASIC TEXTBOOK
Method of Use
Humber of
Replies
Per
Cent
Exclusively and unchanged:
10
11
Re-organized for own convenience:
41
44
As a main point of reference among
others:
43
45
Totals
94
100
It is interesting to note that 89 per cent felt free
to adapt, re-organize and supplement the text in varying
degrees.
Opinions of the Text
But what of the textbook itself? How do the teachers
appraise it? The questionnaire gathered teacher reactions to
various aspects of the authorized text. Table aVJ. gives the
totals for each of twelve relevant sub-questions.
d^ar
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127
TABLE XVI,--OPINIONS OF THE BASIC TEXTBOOK
Opinion
Agree
Dis¬
agree
a. Avoids superficiality.
25
54
b. Challenging to the student
26
54
c. Qiuestions and problems are
adequate.
29
58
d. Diagrams are pertinent.
72
14
e. Previev/s and summaries are good.
74
14
f. Demonstrations are good.
72
15
g. Unit organization is helpful.
79
11
h. Integration is effective
36
31
i. Stresses formal experimentation
enough for grade 10.
51
37
j. Vi<ell-adapted for instruction in
intangible outcomes.
29
32
k. Well-adapted for developing major
concepts from subject matter.
37
30
In the opinion of our teachers, then, the favourable
features of the text are:
1. Diagrams are pertinent.
2. Previews and summaries are good.
3. Demonstrations are good.
4. unit organization is helpful.
That the text has many favourable features is indicated
by the strong support given to the above qualities.
128
'i'he unfavourable features are:
1. Does not avoid superficiality.
2. ’Questions and problems are not adequate.
3. Does not challenge the student.
It may be interesting to segregate the replies of
those who state that they deliberately teach for intangible
outcomes. This group v/as thought to be more readily receptive
to a text whose subject matter may be organized to emphasize
values other than an academic and technical mastery of scien¬
tific facts. Table XVll gives a compilation of the group’'s
opinions upon certain pertinent aspects of the text.
TABLE XVII.—OPINIONS UPON CERTAIN ASiTiCTS OF TIiS
BASIC TEXT BY TEACHERS DELIBERATELY
CONCERNED WITH INTANUIBLE OUTCCILS
Opinion
Yes
No
1. Avoids superficiality.
18
39
2. Challenges the student.
18
32
3. Integration is effective.
30
20
4. V/ell-adapted for instruction in intang¬
ible outcomes.
19
23
5. Well-adapted for developing major con¬
cepts from subject matter
28
16
It will be noted that the charges of superficiality
and lack of challenge are well sustained by this group as well.
This group shows a larger degree of satisfaction with integra-
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129
tion in the text than does its parent group, while the text’s
adaptability for growth in major concepts, receives fairly
general approval. A most significant point is presented by
item 4, where a slight majority here, as in the larger group,
do not consider the text entirely suitable for instruction in
intangibles.
Summary of Authorized Text and Its Use
It would appear, hov^ever, that if the authorized text
can be fairly charged with any deficiency, lack of challenge
v^ould be one. A substantial majority of the teachers deplore
the superficiality of subject matter, its failure to challenge
the student, and the simplicity of the problems. Indeed, a
general implication that treatment of subject matter, the heart
of the textbook, ma3r be unworthy of a grade A. science cooirse
can scarcely be avoided.
Indeed, this criticism may be related to the opinions
of the course in general, as revealed at the end of the
questionnaire, v/here provision was made for such an appraisal.
Here, it will be seen, strong reference to the superficiality
of the course, and to the repetition of grade IX materials,
holds the day. To the extent that an authorized text is
”the raost influential factor in determining what is to be
taught in any science”^"^ these unfavourable opinions may, to
^%eiss, H.D., Obourn, E.S. and Hoffman, G.V/. ,
Modern Science Teaching, p. 66.
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130
a considerable degree, be indirect reflections upon the basic
textbook as well.
V/ith the exception of sub-item i in Table XVI, where
a fair surplus of teachers approve the degree of stress upon
formal experimentation, the remainder of the sub-items do
not show a great deal of opinion one way or the other. This
may indicate that the text is fair or mediocre in these respects,
and thus avoids a concensus of opinion entirely favourable or
otherwise.
The fact that 89 per cent of the reporting teachers
are re-organizing and supplementing the text in varying degrees,
may indicate that a great many are attenipting to follov^/’' the
method which the 46th Yearbook considers ^*likely to prove
15
most satisfactory”. In this connection, a basic text is
supplemented with a variety of mterials from other sources,
to create the science course. This method, however, may ov;e
much of its success to the basic text. V/ith so many teachers
critical of certain important qualities of the present Science
10 basic textbook, it may well be that it is not the best
possible choice.
The text may be considered from yet another important
aspect, that is, organization and point of viev;. This task
^^ITational Association for the Study of Science, 46th
Yearbook, p. 48.
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j::ad odood s' , noi:doaiinoo
vra^xs do ana dexid ©dBodlini YBitt
vdoocfnoad xl^ddid' odd doiih; Doddoxa
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131
becomes more pertinent when we consider the emphasis placed
in Chapter IV upon the value of having a text written from
a ”well-defined educational viewpoint.In the relevant
matters of effectiveness of integration and of adaptability
for evolving major concepts, the text received fair but
not overly substantial support. Regarding its adaptability
for the teaching toward intangible outcomes it does not fare
so well, receiving only minority approval from both the group
as a whole and for the segregated group. This latter circum¬
stance, in view of the stress upon non-factual aims in the
current literature, may indicate yet another possible short¬
coming.
iilXPERIiMTATIQN MB mfONSTHATION
Extent of Use
The important place that experimentation and demon¬
stration have in the science program is reflected in the
results of this survey as shown in Table XVIII. Here it is
indicated that 91 per cent of the teachers polled utilize
these two related aspects of laboratory v/ork to a substantial
degree.
^^Chapter IV, Sub-Chapter on The Textbook and its Use ,
pp. 58-61.
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I
152
TABLE XVIII.--.ii^XTEisl'T TO WHICH TEACHERS E^CPERH.IENT AND
DEIv/[CNSTRATE
Degree of Activity
Number of
Rep lie s
Per
Cent
Constantly.
24
27
Often.
58
64
Rarely.
8
9
Totals
90
100
For the 9 per cent v;ho answered ♦^rarely” a reason v/as
sought from the remainder of each qiest ionna ir e. Here definite
impediments such as lack of time, inadequate facilities or
equipment were found to be present in almost all cases.
Pupil Participation
The following table tabulates the results of ninety-
three replies to the question which dealt with tnis matter.
TABLE XIX.--EXTENT TO WHICH PUPILS ARE ABIE TO EXPERI¬
MENT AND DEMONSTRATE BY THEMSEL7ES
Extent of Participation
Number of
Replies
Per
Gent
Frequently
24
26
Somev;hat
29
31
Rarely
36
39
Never
4
4
Totals
93
100
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135
Altogether, it will be observed, 57 per cent of the
number permit pupils to participate to a fair extent or
better, while 43 per cent permit participation rarely or
never. In an attempt to discover the reasons behind this
latter figure, the questionnaire of each teacher so answering
was examined. The follotving table sets down the results of
this investigation*
TABLE XX.—REASONS FOR PUPIL NON-PARTICIPATION IN
EXPERIIlIEl^AL WORK
Inadequacy of space --
equipment — materials
No Physical
impediment
Obvious
Total
17
19
36
One can only surmise v/hy the 19 teachers curtail
pupil experimentation and demonstration. Perhaps many feel
that these activities are too awkward and time consuming;
others may be faced with some insufficiency in facilities
which the questionnaire does not directly reveal.
Purposes of Laboratory Work
The writer attempted to learn what purposes our group
of teachers have in mind while undertaking laboratory work.
Provision was made for an indication of relative choice among
a group of common outcomes. Table XXI sets forth the results.
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134
TABLE PUHP03ES OF LABORATOHY i:.CTIVITIES
Choice
1st.
End.
3rd.
Total
a.
to establish scien¬
tific principles.
37
15
8
60
b.
to illustrate prin¬
ciples already taught.
29
24
7
60
c.
to give pupils mani¬
pulative skill.
3
5
8
16
d.
to enable pupil to do
work on his own.
4
4
4
12
e.
to illustrate ^formal^
method of scientific
investigation.
0
8
12
20
f.
to train pupil in
orderly v;ork.
1
9
6
16
g*
to present a method of
investigation to carry
over into life
5
3
14
22
h.
as one good means of
getting a mark.
0
0
0
0
i.
to train pupil in care¬
ful observation.
4
14
21
39
As a means of illustrating and enriching scientific
principles, experiments and danonstrations find their most
common use. This is shov/n in tiie relatively great support
given to sub-items (a) and (b). Both receive support as
first and second choices. ”To train pupil in careful observa-
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135
tion*^ is favored as a third choice. Tbe useful purpose of
"getting a mark" is scarcely recognized, overtly at least,
as a valid primary outcome.
Summary of hx-perimentation and Demonstration .
It may be interesting at this point to refer back to
Chapter IV of the body of the thesis in lAiiich v;e quoted
seven comprehensive goals of laboratory work as conceived by
17
the 31st Yearbook. Two of these goals were concerned
with the forming and enriching of scientific principles.
That a great number of teachers polled share these goals is
clear.
T^vo other of these goals may possibly be taken for
granted in experimental work. These are the ones concerned
v/ith "object" instruction and "manipulative" skill. In view
of the large per cent of teachers engaging in laboratory
work and in many cases permitting their pupils to participate,
it may be assumed that these tv^o related goals are, incident¬
ally at least, receiving a measure of attainment.
The remaining goals in the 31st Yearbook's list deal
with training in the scientific method and its'application
to problems both scientific and personal, using laboratory
^"^Chapter IV, Sub-Chapter on experimentation and
Demonstration, pp. 65-66.
136
activities ”to illustrate the formal method of scientific
investigation’* does not make a creditable shov;ing until the
third choice, and, even here, it is outranlced by other
items. The related ”to present a method of investigation to
carry over into life” is likewise pretty well disregarded
until the third choice where it places second. One must
assume, then, that outcomes relating to problem-solving ability
are of secondary concern in most laboratory work.
This contention is strengthened by a reference to
Table XII METHODS USED IN TEACHING EOH INTANGIBLES, where it
is shown that experimental work is not a primary means used
for encouraging growth tov/ard intangible outcomes among those
teachers actively concerned with these aims. Yet these same
teachers esteem the ability ”to solve problems scientifically”;
this is indicated by this purpose’s leadership in Table XI
INTANGIBLE OUTCOJ^IES SOUGHT IN ORDER OF IblTORTANGE.
Possibly many teachers, involved in ’’routine” ex¬
perimentation, are ignoring or taking for granted Y;hat con¬
tribution the laboratory can make toward training in vital
problem solving ability; others, as intimated in Table
may be too impeded by restrictions of materials, space and
time to make effective use of laboratory work for this pur¬
pose .
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137
EVALUATION
Importance of Testing .
The importance that testing has in the science programs
of our group of teachers is indicated by the 90 per cent who
test constantly.
TABLE XKII.—DO YOU REGARD CONSTANT TESTING AS A
VITAL PART OF T0“UR PROGRAM?
Answer
Number of
Rep lies
Per
Gent
Yes
82
90
No
10
10
Totals
92
100
Frequency of Formal Testin^^ .
That consistent formal testing is a ¥\?ell established
procedure is indicated by the results shown in Table XXIII.
TABLE XXIII.—FREQUENCY OF FORMAL TESTING
Answer
Number of
Replies
Per
Cent
At regular intervals:
13
14
At end of convenient amounts
of ¥/ork:
49
53
Both:
30
33
Totals
92
100
138
Associated with the above aooe ^comprehensive’ tests
e.g. those given at Christmas and j-.aster to cover work taken
over a fairly long period. in this regard, the replies again
indicate a majority favourable to this practise. (Table XXIYj.
TABLj] XXIY.—do YGl GIYD COLiPHEHENSIVli TDST3?
Answer
Number of
Replies
Per
Gent
Yes
77
85
No
14
15
Totals
91
100
Purposes of Tests .
After determining the frequency and extent of testing,
it may be pertinent to learn the reason teachers have for this
activity. They were asked, therefore, to state in order of
preference those purposes which guided their testing program.
TABLE XXY.--FJRPOSES POP VHICH TESTS ARE GIYEN
Purnose
1st.
2nd.
3rd.
4th.
5th.
To tal
a.
To get a mark for
the pupil
6
6
13
14
19
58
b.
To diagnose difficulty
22
27
13
11
2
75
c.
To determine mastery
of content
36
23
16
2
2
79
d.
To motivate the pupil
15
15
26
13
3
72
e.
To indicate growth in
intangibles
2
7
9
16
18
52
f.
Any other reason?
6
139
An examination of Table yOCV reveals that;
1. Determining mastery of content appears to be the most
favoured reason for giving tests,
2. Diagnosis of difficulties receives considerable
support as a second choice.
3. Motivation of pupil is a strong third choice,
4. Utilitarian purpose of * getting a mark^ is recognized
as useful only in the latter choices.
5. Revealing grov/th tov/ard intangible outcomes is con¬
sidered of least iiaportance.
Testing for knowledge of facts is thus the most fre¬
quent reason for using tests. It may be well to learn what
type or t 3 rpes of questions are proving most useful in this
regard.
TABLE XXVI.--RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF VARIOUS TYRES
OF QUESTIONS IN TESTING MASTERY OF CONTENT
Choices
Type of Question
1st,
End.
3rd.
Totals
a. Short quest ion-and-ansv/er
59
16
5
80
b. Fill-in-the-blanks
18
25
12
55
c. Cornpleting or drawing
diagrams
5
22
23
50
d. Problems
17
16
25
58
e. Multiple choice
7
15
9
31
f. Essay type
6
4
11
21
g. True-or-false
5
3
7
15
f. Any others?
4
D
!
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140
The ”short quest ion-and-answer, "problems" , and "f ill-
in-the-blanks" types are favoured in that order with the remain¬
der receiving increasingly less approval.
Despite the great reliance upon formal tests it may
be pertinent to learn v/hether or not our group of teachers
use this device alone or whether some supplementary means are
also employed in the evaluation program. Table XXVII indicates
the results of an enquiry.
TABLE XXVII.—EXTENT TO WHICH LiAEXS ARE GIVEN FOR
V/ORK OTHER THAN PERFORlvIANCES ON
FOmiAL TESTS
Answer
Number of
Replies
Per
Cent
To a great extent:
15
16
To a limited extent:
73
80
Never:
3
4
Totals
91
100
An overwhelming majority (96 per cent] rely, therefore,
upon other means in various degrees to supplement the results
of formal tests in determining the pupil’s mark. The follow¬
ing table points out tlie relative uses of some important
’other means’.
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141
TABLE XXVIII.—SOURCES OF UiARKS OTHER TITAN
FOmiAL TESTS
Sources
Number of
Replies
a. Reports — individual or committee
55
b. Performance on experimental work
61
c. No te s
52
d. Work done on projects
50
e. Attitude towards work in general
50
f. Others?
2
The computation of the final mark for the year is our
next concern. Teachers were asked to indicate which one of
three main procedures they used. The results are as follows:
TABLE .fXIX.—GOkIPUTATION OF THIS FINAL MARK
FOR THE TEAR»S WORK
Method
Number of
Replies
Per
Cent
a. From a single end~of~term test
0
0
b. From several major tests spread
over the term
13
14
c. From several factors taken to¬
gether “• tests - notemaking -
attitudes - appraisal of student's
work on projects, etc.
83
86
Tot als
96
100
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142
It is interesting to learn that not one teacher in
the group used the ^all-or-nothing’ method of a single test.
Furthermore, it may be significant that 83 teachers (86 per
cent) considered other activities as well as test results in
reaching their final appraisal.
Sunmiary of Evaluation
The sub-chapter on "Evaluation” in Chapter IV under¬
took to set forth the broad scope that evaluating procedures
have in the modern science program. More specifically, it
was stated that an adequate testing program must be concerned
with:
1. Mastery of content.
2. Diagnostic opportunities.
3. Motivation.
4. Getting a mark.
18
5. Growth towards intangible outcomes.
An inspection of the tables given above reveals that:
1. Testing is considered of great importance v/ith formal
tests being given regularly. In these tests a variety
of questions is used to determine mastery of content.
2. The first three of the above aims concern teachers
more often in their formal testing.
^^Chapter IV, Sub-Chanter on Evaluation in Science ,
p. 79.
143
3. ^’Getting a raark’*, is not considered overtly as an aim
of great importance in routine testing.
4. Most of the teachers reporting supplement formal tests
with other means for the purpose of getting marks for
the pupil.
5. The final or yearns mark is in most cases computed
from several factors of which formal testing is one.
The matter of evaluating growth tow^ard the intangible
goals was discussed in the section on ^^Purposes of Teaching’’.
To include this aspect of evaluation in the overall picture
with the above conclusions we again note:
1. That a majority of the reporting teachers do attempt,
in varying degrees, to include the intangibles in
their evaluating programs. (Table ZIII).
2. That much of this evaluation may possibly be of a
casual and informal nature. (Table XIV).
COmaSITIS ON THE COURSE IN GEXiilRAL
The teachers were asked at the end of the question¬
naire to add any personal comments upon the course in general.
Fifty-three teachers v/ere interested enough to do this.
Of these fifty-three, forty-seven presented comments
which were generally unfavourable.
Almost all of the favourable comments praised the
cairse for its value as general background and overvie^w of the
field of science, particularly for non-college, or non-
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144
scientific students. Indeed, beyond this, there is no other
favourable observation worth recording.
Among the adverse comments, a v;ide variety of criticisms
were made, i^'rom a total of 66 individual remarks of this nat¬
ure, 47 stated that the course was ”not challenging", v/as "too
general", and the like. Iilight of these 47 deplored, especially,
the poor basis it provides for grade XII work.
A further 12 teachers were concerned with the "needless"
repetition of grade IX vrork. The remainder v/ere troubled by
what they considered inadequate treatment of chemistry or
mathematics.
It may be significant that more criticisms were received
than marks of approval. Possibly the dissenting teachers felt
more strongly than the others, who are, perhaps, satisfied or
partially satisfied. It should be kept in mind, at any rate,
that almost half the teachers put dovm no general appraisal
at all.
As the basic text frequently served as the foundation
of the course, it is pertinent to note once more the opinions
of the textbook. One readily?- observes that the major critic¬
isms of the text, (”unchallenging", "superficial"), are the
very ones also m^ost prominent in the general appraisal of
the course.
The questionnaire also made provision for a comment
upon integration in science. The aggregate comments are
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suELLiarized belov;:
TABLE XXX.—OPINIONS OF THE INTEGRATED
COURSE
Upinion
Replies
a. tends to be superficial.
44
b. by destroying the logical framework of
specialized science, it lessens the
value of science instruction.
29
c. is vrell adapted for growth towards the
intangible ends.
11
d. helps in growth of meaningful concepts
by making the facts more meaningful.
17
Total
101
It is apparent that this group of teachers is critical
of the integrated course. Whether they oppose integration on
principle or v/hether they merely are censorous of integration
as represented by Science 10, is not indicated. At any rate,
out of 101 comments, 73 are unfavourable. It may be pertin¬
ent to note the repetition of the charge of superficiality.
A question may arise regarding the suitability of
many teachers in the above group. Does the group not con¬
tain many teachers poorly qualified for science teaching and
thus incapable of a valid opinion?
Accordingly, those teachers having at least four years
of training as science specialists and also at least four
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146
years of experience in high-school science were taken from the
larger group. The opinions of this group on both the course
in general and upon integration are considered in the two
following tables.
TABLiii OPINIONS oF THE COURSE BY SPECIAL¬
IZED AND EXPERIENCED SCIENCE TEACHERS
Type of Opinion
Numb er of
Replies
Per
Cent
Favourable;
7
23
Unfavourable:
24
77
Totals
31
100
TABLE XXXII.—OPINIONS OF THE
SPECIALIZED AND
TEACHERS
INTEGRATED COURSE BY
EXPERIENCED SCIENCE
Opinion
Number of
Replies
a.
Tends to be superficial
17
b.
By destroying the logical framework of
specialized science it lessens the
value of science instruction
15
c.
Is ?/ell-adapted for growth towards
intangible ends.
8
d.
Kelps in growth of meaningful concepts
by making facts more meaningful
6
An inspection of the last two tables indicates that a gener¬
ally unfavourable view of the present course is taken by the
more highly-trained and experienced science teachers in our
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147
gr oup.
GQNCLUDINa COaILIERTo
Although the opinions considered in this chapter come
from teachers in pretty v^ell every teaching situation, the
entire group represents only a relatively small number of
all Science 10 teachers in Alberta, fhe writer, therefore,
wishes to reiterate the need for a circumspect appraisal of
the conclusions presented, liiese conclusions are not absolute
and final, 'ihey may serve, nevertheless, as guideposts to
possible strengths and weaknesses in the course and in its
presentation. As such, they may be helpful as starting points
for: (1) any teacher^s personal evaluation of the course, and
(2} any official re-appraisal of materials and organization.
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CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMvuiiNDATIONS
IM'RODUGTORY
This study has resulted in a number of conclusions.
Many of these are already listed in the suminaries which fol¬
low each group of tables in the previous chapter; others have
arisen from other aspects of the study.
It may be expedient to re-emphasize the more important
of these conclusions by stating them in generalized form. In
this manner, they may be seen together freed from detail.
The validity of each conclusion, of course, depends
upon the validity of the data upon v/hich it is based.
Vdierever any conclusion indicates a possible short¬
coming in the course or in its presentation, the writer has
ventured to suggest a possible means of improvement. Accord¬
ingly, the list of conclusions is followed by a list of
related recommendations.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Many attempts have been made during the past few decades
to free science instruction from its traditional emphasis
upon rigidly academic and college-preparatory objectives.
Educational reformers have contended that science, as
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149
a school subject, is most worthwhile when teaching is
directed tavards the development of competent citizen¬
ship in its broadest sense. Accordingly, new programs
of science instruction have appeared. In these, concern
with the growth of attitudes and abilities directly use¬
ful in everyday living has taken the place of concern
v/ith the training of the specialist. Those programs
have been designated collectively as "functional
science".
2. Integrated physical science, in v/hich materials from a
number of specialized sciences are organized for a pur¬
pose other than the mastery of specialized content, is
an important development in this field.
2. Developed as a course in integrated physical science.
Science 10 was the initial and significant step in the
establishment of a program of functional science in
Alberta.
4. In attem.pting the difficult task of inaugurating a
phjT-sical science program for Albertans high schools, the
creators of Science 10 have been:
a. aware of those trends in educational thought con¬
cerned with making science instruction functional.
b. concerned v/ith many of the difficulties attendant
upon the construction and acceptance of such a
program.
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150
5. There is evidence that a great manj^ teachers viev/ the
present course in Science 10 unfavourably. Criticisms
involving the related charges of generality, lack of
challenge, repetitiousness and superficiality appear
persistently, and are not counterbalanced by similar
expressions of commendation. It is difficult, therefore,
to ignore the possibility of Science 10 being a somewhat
weak course in integrated physical science.
6. The high standards of professional preparation demanded
by the current literature for teachers of high-school
science are not being met in a fairly substantial number
of cases. This situation is especially noticeable where
Science 10 is being taught by teachers trained in non-
scientific fields.
7. V/hile many specific qualities of the basic textbook
receive general approbation, a large majority of teachers
consider the text superficial, unchallenging, and poorly
supplied with stimulating questions and problems. In
this regard, the principal criticism of the basic text¬
book parallels the criticism of the course in general.
This may be a most significant point in view" of the
Sub-committee*s concern v;ith the need of a basic textbook
as the basis for a successful course.
It is likewise pertinent to note that a small majority
of teachers do not consider the basic text well adapted
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151
for instruction in the intangible outcomes v/hile rather
large minorities consider ineffective both the integra¬
tion of materials and their adaptability for developing
major concepts,
8. In general, the basic textbook is not used slavishly.
Most teachers re-organize and supplement its content in
varying degrees,
9. Certain deficiencies in facilities and equipment appear
consistently. Of these, an inadequacy of laboratory
facilities and materials may prove the most serious.
10. Evaluation in Science 10 appears to be particularly vigour-
ous with regard to formal testing. Most teachers, hoY/-
ever, supplement formal factual testing in various degrees
with other means of appraisal vvhose results are included
in the yearns mark. The conscious evaluation of intang¬
ible outcomes concerns three-fourths of the teachers
although there is some intimation that the methods used
may lean to the casual and unsystematic.
11. Most teachers experiment and demonstrate frequently,
with, a lesser number permitting at least a fair degree
of pupil participation. Laboratory work is carried on
for a number of conscious purposes, notably the clarifica¬
tion of scientific principles. Perforraance on experi¬
mental v;ork also serves as an important supplement to
formal testing in the evaluating program. There is
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152
reason to assume that the potentialities of experimental
work in the developing of vital problem-solving abilities
are not being fully utilized and that the laboratory
programs of certain teachers are somev/hat restricted by
lack of adequate time or facilities.
12. There is strong adherence to teaching primarily for
mastery of content with a large minority of teachers
taking this position, r.evertheless, over two-thirds of
all teachers do have some deliberate regard for the non-
factual outcomes, either as a primary or secondary con¬
cern in their teaching. The remainder tend to ignore
the intangibles as such in their teaching. A good major¬
ity of teachers, including many who do not directly teach
for intangible outcomes, attempt, nevertheless, to eval¬
uate their growth. There are indications, therefore, of
a certain lack of unanimity among teachers regarding the
place and the practicability of teaching and evaluating the
non-factual objectives.
HECOrMEHDATIOHS
1, Greater efforts should be made to assure that, as far as
possible, only those properly equipped as teachers of
science, are placed in charge of Science 10 classrooms.
2. Greater efforts seem necessary to mitigate many of the
deficiencies of equipment and facilities. Some, or all.
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153
of the follov/ing may be helpful:
a. An official science-room inventory, to be filled in
by all science teachers, v/ould pin-point specific short¬
comings as a guide for the teachers concerned, as well
as giving the Department of Dducation an accurate pict¬
ure of the situation.
b. An official catalogue listing suitable equipment, its
approximate price and availability, v/ould enable teach¬
ers or school officials to secure more readily any re¬
quired item.
c. To meet the problem of inadequate libraries, a similar
catalogue should be prepared for those attempting to
remedy this deficiency. A system of ^^package deals^^,
may prove effective. Parcels of suitable books, of
various sizes and prices, according to the needs of
each school, could be prepared under the guidance of
the Department of Education. Each package should in¬
clude subscriptions to tv/o or more suitable scientific
magazines.
d. A section of the Curriculum G-uide, listing methods of
creating a scientific atmosphere in the classroom,
would be a boon to the conscientious teacher, partic¬
ularly, if he is using an ordinary classroom. This
section should include directions for the best use
of bulletin boards, charts, etc.
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154
e. Some sort of specific directions should be given to
teachers hampered by inadequate laboratory facilities.
These directions should concern best use of available
space, effective improvization, and related matters.
f. Some sort of official science kit may help to over¬
come the shortage of laboratory materials. These
packages would include basic materials for schools
of various sizes.
2. attempts to direct teachers somevrhat unconcerned ¥7ith
clear, deliberate teaching for intangible outcomes
should be made by:
a. setting dovim more graphically in the Curriculum G-uide
the specific nature and value of non-factual outcomes,
c. stressing more vigourously that these outcomes wall
most likely appear if they are deliberately taught for
4. The Curriculum Guide should include a section on definite
methods of organizing materials for instruction in the
intangibles. Subject matter from the course might v/ell
be used for this purpose.
5. The need for ourooseful evaluation of intangible outcomes
seems to require emphasis. In addition, a number of
ready and relatively specific methods of evaluation should
be listed as a guide to all teachers, and particularly to
those whose evaluation may be somewhat casual or uncertain
More specific guidance regarding use of laboratory work
6
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155
as a means of training for problem-solving abilities, seems
in order. ...etbods of encouraging the use of the scientific
method in fhe Curriculum Guide ^s nev/ and meaningful situa¬
tions would be particularly helpful to those teachers
having difficulty in this respect.
7. As the course outline and the basic textbook share respons¬
ibility for any charge of weakness made against Science 1C,
they may be profitably reviewed together in relation to
the following questions:
A. The Course :
1. Is it too long and too general?
2. Does it repeat too many grade IX materials?
3. Are many sections too easy?
4. Is it doing its full share in providing a proper
basis for grads XII v7ork?
5. Are its materials selected and organized to best
provide a higlily effective course in integrated
physical science?
B. The Basic Textbook :
1. Are its materials organized most effectively to:
a. provide efficient integration of subject
matter?
b. encourage ready development of major concepts?
c. encourage substantial growth toward the non-
factual objectives of science teaching?
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2. Do the problems and questions generally lack
challenge?
d. Is its content often presented in too superficial
and unchallenging a fashion for grade X?
157
BiBLioaRAPmr
Alberta Department of Education. Senior iii^h School Curriculum
Guide for Science 10 ( Interim Edit ion ). Edmonton:
The Queen's Printer, 1952.
Alberta High School Curriculum Committee. Minutes of Meetings
for 1947-1955 . Edmonton: Department of Education, 1947.
Alberta High School Sub-Committee on High School Science.
Minutes of Meetings for 1949-1951 . Edmonton: Department
of Education, 1949-1951.
Bureau of Educational Research in Science. New Directions in
Science Teaching . New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company
Incorporated, 1949.
Co-operative Committee on Science Teaching. "The Preparation
of High-School Science Teachers,” School Science and
Mathematics , XLII (October, 1942), pp. 636-50.
Heiss, E.D., Obourn, E.S., and Hoffmann, C.V/. Modern Science
Teaching . New York: The MacMillan Company, 1950.
Hunter, G.W. Science Teaching at Junior and Senior High
School Levels . New York: American Book Company, 1934.
Hunter, G.W., and Spore, L. ”The Objectives of Science in
the Secondary Schools of the United States,” School
Science and Mathematics , XLIII (October, 1943), pp. 633-47.
Hurd, A.W. "Present Inadequacies and Suggested Remedies in
the Teaching of High School Science,” School Science and
Mathematics , XVIII (June, 1928), pp. 637-39.
National Society for the Study of Education. Science Education
in American Schools, 46th Yearbook, Part 1. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1947.
National Society for the Study of Education. A Program for
Teaching Sci ence , 31st Yearbook , Part I. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1932.
Noll G.V/. The Teaching of Science in Elementary anH Secondary
Schools . New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1942.
North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools.
Hig;h School Curriculum Re-organization . Ann Arbor: North
Central Association, 1933.
i
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BIBLIOORAPHY
(CONTINUED)
Progressive Educational Association. Science in General
Education . New York: D. Appleton - Century Company, 1938,
Stubbs, M.E. *’Tbe Place and Problems of Chemistry in the
High School Curriculum,” School Science and Mathematics ,
XXVII (October, 1927), pp. 741-48.
Teachers College, Columbia University. New Directions in
Science Teaching . New York: Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1943.
I
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160
APPENDIX A
QUESTIONNAIRE
I TEACHER *S BACKGROUITD :
a. Years of training beyond G-rade 12 _
b. Subjects specialized in _
c. Years experience in teaching senior high school
science _
d. Is science your main teaching subject? (yes no)
II SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND CLASSROOM EACILITIES :
a. Number of rooms in the senior high school __
b. Average size of your Science 10 classes _
c. Time spent per week on Science 10 _
d. Are other pupils present when this subject is being
taught? (yes noj
e. Is there a special science room? (yes no)
f. Location of laboratory facilities. (as a special room,
as a definite part of the classroom, improvised)
g. How is your science library? (adequate, fair, poor)
h. can your room be arranged for conmittee and other
group work? (yes no)
i. Have you a film machine or slide projector? (yes no;
j. Have you a microscope? (yes no)
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161
k. Please name any other major equipment _
l. Have you enough materials and equipment to demonstrate
or experiment frequently and effectively? (yes no]
m. nave you a good sized bulletin board? (yes no]
n. Have you any wall charts? (a lot, a few, none]
III EVALUATION AND IvlETHQDOLOGY :
Theoretically the modern trend is away from concern
v/ith content alone though facts are still important. Many
authorities^however^claim that mastery of content is merely
a means for attaining the more intangible aims of science instruc¬
tion. These objectives are outlined in the Curriculum Guide and
include: use of the scientific method in solving everyday pro¬
blems, suspended judgment, critical mindedness, and the like.
1. * The Intangibles^ and The Pacts of Science
a. Do you consider the mastery of content the prime
concern in science teaching? (yes no)
b. Do you teach for these intangibles listed above
deliberately and definitely ? (yes no)
c. If YES to (b), please mark the following outcomes
in order of importance (1, 2, 3)
a) problem-solving ability (scientific method)_
b) problem sensitivity _
c) open-mindedness _
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162
d) understanding of value of science _
e) scientific interests _
f) critical and suspended Judgment _
g) any other? _
d. If NO to (b) please check your reason:
a) take up too much time for deliberate effort _
b) too nebulous for effective teaching or evalua¬
tion _
c) mastery of logically-organized content offers
most to the student. Intangibles are super¬
fluous _
d) they will best develop as an adjunct to effect¬
ive factual teaching] therefore concentrate on
understanding of content _
e) their growth is so slow that one yearns develop¬
ment is hardly noticeable anyway _
f) any other reason? _
e. If you are definitely concerned ?;ith teaching for
these intangibles please check (1, 2, 3,) the
methods you find most expedient.
a) trying to develop them incidently during rout¬
ine teaching _
b) adapting experimental work to stress the
»scientific method’ more than is usual in
fomal v/ork _
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c) giving projects requiring individual research
and thought _
d) organizing my course so that principles and
concepts are discovered by methods requiring
research, open-mindedness, critical judgment
etc._
e) relating facts to outside world and students*
place in it _
f) Any other? _
f. If you are deliberately concerned with evaluating
growth toward these intangible ends please indicate
(1, 2, 3) the devices you find most expedient:
a) personal observation of pupil’s day-to-day work
and attitude
b) use of rating scales ___
c) use of special ’thought* questions _
d) observing pupil when given responsibility _
e) by considering the mark on formal tests as
indicative _
f) any device of your own? _
g. I believe that these intangibles are worth teach¬
ing for but as evaluating them is such a subjective
business it is better avoided, (yes no)
h. The Course Bulletin mentions the development of
meaningful and ’functional’ concepts as a desirable
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164
outcome of science teaching. Some people class
this as an intangible outcome; but many traditional¬
ly-minded teachers will list this as one of their
aims too. Please check your attitude toward this
objective.
a) I think this aim can be best attained by a
logical presentation of the facts of science
b) I think this aim can be best attained by re¬
organizing our subject matter around these
concepts _
c) Teaching for Afunctional concepts* is too
indefinite; let*s see that the pupils are
well grounded in the basic facts of science _
i. What is your opinion of the integrated course.^
Please check.
a) tends to be superficial _
b) by destroying the logical framework of
specialized science it lessens the value of
science instruction _
c) is ?/ell adapted for growth toward the intang¬
ible ends _
d) helps in growth of meaningful concepts by
making the facts more meaningful _
e) any comment of your own? _
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2, Teaching and Testing; :
a. Facts are still important. Please indicate the
relative importance of the methods you use to
present the facts of the course:
a) direct teaching including demonstrations _
b) pupil reading v^ith note-taking or reports _
c) committee work and reports _
d) panel discussions, class discussions _
e) using experiments and demonstrations to pre¬
sent or clarify ideas _
f) developing work through v/ritten or oral
questioning _
g) pupil presentation of parts of the course __
h) any method of your own? _
b. Do you regard constant testing as a vital part of
your program? (yes no)
c. Hov/ often do you give formal tests? (At regular
intervals; at end of convenient amounts of v/ork;
both)
d. Do you give ’comprehensive* tests e.g. Christmas
or Faster tests (yes no)
e. Please mark in order of importance the purposes
for v/hich you give tests:
a) to get a mark for the pupil _
b) to diagnose difficulty _
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c) to determine mastery of content _
d) To motivate the pupil _
e) to indicate growth in the intangibles _
f) any other reason? ___
f. Many types of questions are used to determine
mastery of content. Please check the following
(1, 2, 3) in order of their importance to you.
a) short question and answer _
b) fill-in-the-blanks _
c) completing or drawing diagrams _
d) problems _
e) multiple choice _
f) essay type _
g) true or false _
h) any others? _
g. Do you make it a policy to give marks for work
other than performances on formal tests? (to a
great extent, to a limited extent, never)
h. Please check those of the following for which you
give marks:
a) reports — individual or committee __
b) performance on experimental work _
c) notes _
d) work done on projects _
e) attitude tov/ard work in general _
f) any others? ___
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167
i. How do you compute the final mark for the year’s
work? Please check.
a) from a single end-of-the-term test _
b) from several major tests spread over the
term_
c) from several factors taken together (tests,
notemarking, attitudes, appraisal of student’s
work on projects etc.) _
j. Do you present a preview of each unit? (yes no)
k. Do you pay special attention to the acquiring of a
scientific vocabulary? (yes no)
l. To what extent eire pupils urged to look beyond the
classroom for scientific information or for les¬
sons in the value of science? (greatly, somewhat,
never)
m. Do you use the suggested unit outlines in the
curriculum guide? (consistently, frequently,
rarely)
n. To what extent do you find the suggested procedures
in the Curriculum Guide valuable? (always, often,
rarely)
3. Experiments and Demonstrations :
a. To what extent do you demonstrate and experiment?
(constantly, often, rarely)
b. To what extent are the pupils able to demonstrate
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168
or experiment by themselves? (frequently, some¬
what, rarely, never)
c. Please check (1, 2, 3) in order, of relative
importance the purposes for which you use experi¬
ments and/or demonstrations.
a) to establish scientific principles _
b) to illustrate principles already taught _
c) to give pupils manipulative skill _
d) to enable pupil to do v/ork on his own _
e) to illustrate 'formal’ method of scientific
investigation _
f) to train pupil in orderly work _
g) to present a method of investigation to
carry over into life _
h) as one good means of getting a mark __
i) to train pupil in careful observation _
4. The Authorized Text :
a. How do you use the text? (exclusively and un¬
changed, reorganized for my own convenience, as
a main point of reference among others]
b. Please check the folloY/ing. They refer to the
authorized text. A -- agree D -- disagree
a) avoids superficiality _
b) challenging to the student _
c) questions and problems adequate _
i
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169
d) diagrams are pertinent _
e) previews and summaries are good _
f) demonstrations are good _
g) unit organization is helpful _
h) integration here is effective _
i) does stress formal experimentation enough
for (i-rade 10 _
j) well-adapted for instruction in the intang¬
ible outcomes _
k) well-adapted for developing major concepts
from the subject matter _
l) any observation of your own? ______
1. Have you any comments on the course in general which
you would care to put down?
a.
b.
c.
2. Vtfould you be interested in a summary of the results
of this survey? (yes no)
I
TO"
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APPENDIX B
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171
APPENDIX B
COVERING LETTER TO QUESTIONNAIRE
11532- 140 Street,
Edmonton, Alberta,
May 30, 19 54.
Dear Fellow Teacher:
For the purpose of writing an M. Ed. thesis, I am at
present investigating the new Science 10 course v/ith special
reference to its background, its objectives and its actual
classroom presentation. As the essential factor is, of course,
the classroom situation, the success of the entire project
depends upon the enclosed questionnaire. For this reason I
am making a friendly request for a few moments of your time.
In a pinch, even a partial answer will be welcome.
The questionnaire is designed to reveal as fully as
possible the following: training of science teachers, teacher's
attitude toward the aims of science teaching, school and class¬
room facilities, methods used in teaching and evaluation.
I might add that all information you may reveal will
be held in strictest confidence. There is no need for a
signature.
Thanking you in advance for any consideration you are
able to give my request, I remain,
Very sincerely yours.
Douglas Jardine,
(Westmount School, Ediaonton)
i
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